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THE 


ART  OF  HORSE-SHOEING 


A  MANUAL  FOR  FARRIERS 


BY 

WILLIAM  HUNTING,  F.R.C.V.S. 

Editor  of  The  Veterinary  Record, 

Ex-President  of  the  Royal  Ci>Ue(je  of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

Member  of  the  Committee  for  National  Registration  of  Farriers. 

WITH  NEARLY  ONE  HUNDRED  ILLUSTRATIONS 

American  Edition. 
Revised  and  enlarged  hy  the  Aiitlwr. 


NF,W    YORK 
WILLIAM  R,  JENKINS 

851  <fe  853  i^iXTH  Avenue 


Copyright,  1898,  by  William  R.  Jenkins. 


All  Rights  Reserved. 


PRINTED  BY  THE 

PRESS  OF  William  R.  Jenkins, 
New  York. 


PREFACE, 


This  little  book  is  written  for  three  classes  of  readers: 
for  horse-owners  who  may  interest  themselves  in  the 
subject,  for  farriers  who  are  open  to  conviction,  and  for 
veterinary  students  who  have  to  be  examined. 

The  method  joursued  lias  been,  to  first  describe  the 
form  and  action  of  the  foot,  next  the  preparation  of  the 
foot  for  shoeing.  Then  the  form  of  a  shoe  is  treated  of 
and  the  details  to  be  observed  in  making  it.  The  selec- 
tion of  shoes  for  varieties  of  feet  or  for  special  kinds  of 
work  follows,  and  aftei"wards  the  fitting  and  nailing-ou 
are  considered.  Other  chapters  are  devoted  to  "roughing," 
shoeing  defective  feet,  accidents,  the  use  of  leathers  and 
pads. 

Throughout  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  be  as 
simple  and  clear  as  possible  in  expression,  to  lay  down 
correct  general  i)rinciples  and  to  point  out  the  technical 
details  which  are  essential  to  good  shoeing.  On  all  theso 
points  authorities  are  not  agreed,  and  I  trust  those  who 
differ  from  me  will  pardon  any  too  dogmatic  expressions 
of  opinion  in  these  pages. 

The  illustrations  will  be  of  assistance  in  making 
clear  the  text.  Some  of  tliese  are  copied  from  books, 
some  are  drawn  from  models  or  preparations,  and  some 
are  diagramatic.  The  books  I  am  indebted  to  are: 
"Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,"  by  Gamgee  and 
Law;  "  On  the  Horse's  Foot,"  by  Bracy  Clark;  Bouley^s 
"  Atlas  of  the  Foot, ' '  r.nd  Goyau's  ' '  Mar^chalerie. "  i 

Above  all,  I  am  indebted  to  the  late  Professor  JosepH 
Gamgee,  who  first  gave  me  an  interest  in  horse-shoeing 
and  to  whose  teachings  and  writings  I  trace  whatever 
ideas  I  now  possess. 

William  Hunting. 


CONTENTS. 


Chap,  Page. 

II. — Form  and  Action  of  thp:  Foot. 5 

The  hoof.  The  sensitive  foot,  growth  and  wear  of  hoof. 
The  bones,  cartilage -i,  paxs  and  vessels.  Action  of  the 
foot,  expansion  and  contraction,  function  of  the  frog. 
The  natuird  bearing-surface. 

III. — Preparation  of  Hoop  for  Shoeing .      30 

Bearing -surface  for  shoe.  Proportions  of  foot,  height  of 
heel,  length  of  toe,  treatment  of  sole  and  frog.  Faults  to 
be  avoided. 

IV. — Foals  and  Unshod  Feet 48 

V. — The  Form  and  Manufacture  of  Shoes  o      50 

Material,  weijrht,  thickness,  width.  The  foot-aurface  of 
shoes.  The  ground -jiarface-s.  Calkins,  nails  and  nail'" 
holes.    Machine-made  shoes.    Prepared  bar-irou. 

VI. — Selection  of  a  Shoe 69 

For  varieties  of  horse  and  work. 

VII. — Fitting  and  Application  of  Shoes....  o      73 

Level  or  adjusted  form.  Outline  fittip^-.  sur^.-ve^fitting. 
Clips,  hot  and  cold  fitting.    Tii),i,    The  Clmrlur  system. 

VIII. — On  Roughing  90 

Necessity  for  e\'ilsof.  Frost-niiils,  ordinary  "  ro'jghing." 
Movable  steel  sharps,  steel  screw  ijh;u\i^!^. 

IX.— Injuries  Resulting  from  Shoeing......      9S 

From  nails,  from  the  clip,  from  the  shoo.  "  Corns," 
"burnt  sole."  " Treads  "  "  Cuttni^;  or  brushing," 
"Over-reaching."  " apeedy-cut,"  "Forj^ing  or  clacking." 

X. — Shoeing  Bad  Feet .....,„     loa 

Flat  feet,  convex  eoles,  broken,  feet, 

XI. — Leather  and  Rubber  Pads 117 

Plain  leather,  ring-leathers,  frog-pads.  The  pneumatic 
pad,  tLc  wedge-pad,  the  bar-pad. 

XII.— Shoeing  Competitions  . . . » 123 


THE 

ART    OF    HORSE^SHOEING 

A  MANUAL  FOR  FARRIERS 


CHAPTER  I. 

Farriery  is  the  art  of  shoeing  horses,  and  can  only 
"be  properly  learned  by  a  long  practical  experience  in  the 
shoeing-forge.  If  the  foot  of  the  horse  were  not  a  living 
object  perhaps  the  training  obtained  in  the  forge  would 
be  all  that  was  necessary  for  efficient  workmanship.  As, 
however,  the  hoof  is  constantly  growing,  it  is  constantly 
changing  its  form.  The  duty  of  a  farrier  therefore  is 
not  merely  to  fix  a  shoe  upon  the  hoof  but  to  reduce  the 
hoof  to  proper  proportions  before  doing  so.  Now,  as  the 
hoof  is  only  the  outer  covering  of  a  complex  and  sensi- 
tive foot,  damage  to  the  exterior  surface  may  injure  the 
structures  within.  Injury  does  frequently  result,  and 
not  always  from  carelessness.  Perhaps  as  much  injury 
follows  careful  work,  based  upon  wrong  principles,  as 
slovenly  work  carried  out  in  perfect  ignorance  of  any 
principle.  The  injury  to  feet  resulting  from  shoeing 
may  not  be  apparent  at  once.  It  may  be,  and  often  is, 
of  a  slow  and  gradual  nature,  and  not  credited  to  its  true 
cause  until  the  horse  is  rendered  an  incurable  cripple. 

It  seems  evident  then  that  to  do  justice  to  a  horse  a 
farrier  should  not  only  possess  manipulative  skill,  but 
should  have  a  correct  idea  of  the  structures  and  functions 
of  the  foot,  as  well  as  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  form, 
and  variations  of  the  hoof. 


2  THE  ART   OF    HORSE-SHOEING. 

Few  persons  appreciate  the  importance  of  horse- 
shoeing, whilst  a  small  number  tell  us  it  is  unnecessary. 
Here  and  there  au  enthusiast  has  the  courage  of  his  con- 
victions and  is  able,  for  a  time,  to  exhibit  animals  doing 
work  without  shoes.  In  some  countries  horses  are  regu- 
larly ridden  with  no  addition  to  their  natural  hoof,  but 
in  such  places  the  surface  over  which  the  animals  travel 
is  grass  land.  In  all  civilized  countries  where  good  roads 
exist  shoeing  is  practised.  The  gentleman  with  a  fad 
who  occasionally  ajjpears  in  England  with  unshod  horses 
at  work  is  an  unconscious  impostor.  He  sets  his  little 
experience  against  the  common  sense  and  universal  prac- 
tice of  others.  No  man  of  business  would  pay  for 
shoeing  if  he  could  do  without  it.  The  ' '  shoeless " 
experiment  has  been  tried  over  and  over  again,  but 
always  with  the  same  result — a  return  to  shoeing.  In 
dry  weather  tho  hoof  becomes  hard,  and  it  is  wcmderf  ul 
how  much  wear  it  will  then  stand  on  the  hardest  of 
roads.  In  wet  weather  the  hoof  becomes  soft,  and  then 
the  friction  on  hard  roads  soon  prohibits  work  without 
shoes.  If  work  be  persisted  in,  under  such  circum- 
stances, the  hoof  rapidly  wears  away  and  lameness 
results.  Persons  trying  to  prove  a  pre-conceived  theory 
meet  this  difficulty  by  resting  the  horse  until  the  horn 
grows,  but  business  men  who  keep  horses  for  work  in  all 
weathers  can  afford  no  such  luxury.  Shoeing  has  been 
called  "a  necessary  evil."  The  phrase  is  a  misuse  of 
words,  for  there  is  no  necessary  evil  about  it.  Of  course 
it  is  no  more  free  from  accident  than  other  operations, 
but  its  evils  are  fairly  described  as  accidents,  whilst  its 
benefits  are  fully  apparent.  Without  shoes  horses  at 
work  would  be  more  often  lame  than  with  them;  without 
shoes  horses  could  not  do  half  the  work  they  do  with 
them,  and  so  we  need  not  further  discuss  the  necessity 
of  shoeing. 

The  value  of  horse-shoeing  depends  upon  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  done.  Very  seldom  does  the  owner  of 
horses  appreciate  the  quality  of  the  work.  As  a  rule  the 
price  charged,  or  the  distance  from  the  forge  to  the 
stable,  regulates  the  choice  of  a  farrier.    Not  having  any 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

pecuniary  interest  in  the  trade,  I  may  say  that  such  mat- 
ters should  not  be  allowed  to  decide  between  one  farrier 
and  another.  A  bad  workman  may  do  an  injury  at  one 
shoeing  which  will  cost  the  owner  of  the  horse  more 
than  would  pay  ten  times  over  the  difference  between 
his  charges  and  the  higher  prices  of  a  better  man. 

Many  years  ago  I  knew  a  firm  who  changed  their 
farrier  and  system  of  shoeing  for  a  cheaper  plan.  The 
cost  for  shoeing  alone  was  decreased  by  $375  in  the  year, 
but  the  cost  of  horse-flesh  rose  in  that  year  more  than 
6500.  The  old  saw — "  that  for  w^ant  of  a  nail  the  shoe 
was  lost,  for  want  of  a  shoe  the  hor.se  vv'-as  lost,  and  for 
want  of  a  horse  the  man  was  lost,"  has  been  illustrated 
times  without  number.  Few  persons,  however,  are 
iiware  of  the  terrible  consequences  which  have  more  than 
once  attended  neglect  in  the  shoeing  of  horses.  iSTapo- 
leoji's  retreat  from  Moscow  depended  for  most  of  its 
hardships  and  horrors  upon  the  simple  fact  that  his 
lior^s  were  not  shod  properly  for  travelling  on  snow  and 
ioe.  The  horses  could  not  keep  their  feet,  and  were 
unable  to  drag  the  guns  and  v/agous,  which  had  to  be 
abandoned.  Daring  the  Fra-ncoPrussian  war,  Bour- 
baki'g  retrea.t  became  a  confused  rout  from  a  similar 
cause.  In  civil  life  no  winter  passes  without  injury  and 
death  to  hundreds  of  horses  from  the  same  neglect. 
These  are  instances  that  anyone  can  see;  but  heavy 
losses  due  to  bad  shoeing  are  constant  from  other  and  less 
evident  evils — from  the  adoption  of  wrong  methods  and 
the  practice  of  erroneous  theorit-s. 

The  farrier  has  not  Ixvan  fairly  treated  by  the  public. 
His  practical  knowledge  has  been  ignored,  he  has  been 
instructed  by  amateurs  in  all  sorts  of  theories,  and 
coerced  into  carrying  out  practices  for  ilie  untoward 
resrJts  of  which  he  has  been  blamed.  The  natural  conse- 
quence of  all  this  has  been  that  the  art  of  farriery 
degenerated,  and  tlie  farrier  was  forced  into  a  position 
d^istractive  to  the  self-respect  of  any  craftsman.  In  no 
other  trade  do  persons  entirely  ignorant  of  the  business 
presume  to  direct  and  dictate  as  to  how  the  work  should 
b)e  done.     No  one  presumes  to  instruct  the  watch-maker 


4  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

or  bell-hanger  as  to  the  details  of  his  craft,  but  the  far- 
rier has  been  compelled  to  take  his  instructions  from  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men. 

Only  in  recent  years  has  the  man  who  shoes  horses 
been  allowed  to  know  something  of  his  calling.  Various 
causes  have  acted  in  putting  an  end  to  the  state  of  dis- 
cord, and  the  trade  is  now  entering  upon  a  brighter 
time.  The  Worshipful  Company  of  Farriers — one  of 
those  ancient  City  Guilds  which  had  survived  their 
original  vocation  and  usefulness — has  wakened  up,  and 
is  striving  to  resume  its  proper  function  as  the  head  and 
director  of  the  trade  over  which  it  ought  to  preside. 
Agricultural  Societies  have  also  taken  the  matter  up, 
and  fostered  a  health^'-  emulation  amongat  farriers  by 
instituting  practical  competitions  at  their  shows.  Vete- 
rinary Surgeons  have  devoted  considerable  research  to 
the  elucidation  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
foot,  and  many  old  errors  have  been  corrected.  School 
Boards  have  made  the  present  generation  of  farriers  able 
and  willing  to  supplement  their  practice  by  a  study  of 
pnnciples.  We  have,  in  fact,  arrived  at  a  time  when 
everyone  interested  seems  inclined  to  recognize  the 
importance  of  the  art  and  its  technical  difficulties,  and 
when  no  one  has  a  brand  new  infallible  discovery  wliich 
alone  can  save  the  horse  and  guide  the  farrier. 

My  object  in  writing  is  not  to  suggest  anything  new, 
"but  to  point  out  the  general  principles  upon  which  the 
art  is  based,  and  to  indicate  those  details  which  are 
essential  to  success,  and  those  which  are  to  be  avoided  if 
soundness  and  duration  of  service  are  recognized  as  true 
economy  in  a  stud  of  horses. 


CHAPTER   II. 

The  Form  and  Action  of  the  Foot. 

The  foot  of  a  horse  consists  of  a  variety  of  living 
structures,  differing  in  form  and  texture,  and  enclosed  i-i 
a  horny  covering  called  the  hoof.  Although  the  farrier's 
work  is  applied  only  to  the  hoof,  it  is  necessary  that  he 
should  know  something  of  the  whole  foot,  because  it  is 
but  too  easy  to  injure  the  structures  within  by  altera- 
tions of  the  horny  covering  without. 

The  simplest  way  to  understand  the  foot  is  to  study 
separately  the  different  parts,  and  to  apply  that  know- 
ledge in  obtaining  a  general  idea  of  the  relations  of  all 
the  parts  to  each  other.  There  is  not,  then,  much  diffi- 
culty in  appreciating  the  functions  of  each  part,  and  the 
uses  and  action  of  the  v;'hole  organ. 

The  Ilcof. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  general  appearance  of 
the  hoof.  It  is  not  a  regular  geometrical  figure.  Each 
of  the  four  feet  of  the  horse  shows  some  peculiarity  in 
form,  by  which  a  farrier  can  at  once  identify  a  fore  from 
a  hind  or  a  left  from  a  right. 

The  fore  feet  should  be  similar  in  size  and  shape. 
Disease  may  be  suspected  when  any  marked  difference 
exists.  But  a  healthy  hoof  Avhich  has  been  broken,  or 
much  rasped,  does  not  retain  its  proper  form,  and  may 
thus  confuse  a  novice. 

The  hind  feet  should  be  proportionate  in  size  to  the 
fore,  and  then  it  is  not  of  much  practical  consequence 
whether  the  whole  are  large  or  small. 

The  front  feet  are  rounder  and  less  pointed  at  the  toe 
than  the  hind;  they  are  also  more  sloj^ing  in  front.  The 
two  fore  feet  and  the  two  hind  should  be  in  pairs.  The 
right  and  left  feet  are  disting-uished  from  each  other  by 
ihe  inner  side  being  more  upright,  or,  if  examined  on  the 
"ttader  surface,  by  the  outer  border  being  more  f)rominent. 


6  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

Although  to  a  casual  observer  the  hoof  appears  as 
one  continuous  horny  structure,  it  may  easily  be  separ- 
ated into  three  distinct  parts  by  prolonged  soaking  in 
water.  The  division  takes  place  so  as  to  leave  the  sole^ 
frog  and  v/all  separate  portions.  These  may  now  be 
•considered. 


Fig.  1.— a  For©  Foot. 

The  Wall  is  that  portion  of  the  hoof  seen  whilst 
the  foot  rests  upon  the  ground.  It  covers  the  front  and 
sides  of  the  foot.  It  extends  from  the  coronet  down- 
wards and  slightly  outwards,  so  that  its  lower  circum- 
ference is  greater  than  its  upper.  The  front  portion 
shows  its  greatest  height  and  obliquity,  diminishing  in 
these  resj)ects  as  it  passes  backwards.  At  the  heels  the 
wall  is  turned  in  upon  itself,  and  j)asses  forward  towards 
the  centre  of  the  foot  until  it  becomes  lost  in  the  structure 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  7 

of  the  sole.  These  turned-iii  portions  of  the  wall  aTe 
called  the  bars,  and  serve  two  purposes;  they  increase  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  wall,  and  by  embracing  a  part  of 
the  sole  on  each  side,  they  afford  an  increased  solidity  to 
the  union  of  the  wall  with  the  rest  of  the  hoof. 


Fig.  2.— a  Hind  Foot. 

If  we  detach  the  wall,  its  inner  surface  is  seen  to 
consist  of  a  number  of  thin,  horny  projections  running 
parallel  to  each  other  from  above  downwards  and  for- 
wards. These  are  called  the  horny  laminso.  They 
number  from  five  to  six  hundred  and  correspond  to 
similar  processes  on  the  sensitive  foot.     (Fig.  3.) 

Round  the  upper  circumference  on  the  inside  of  the 
wall  is  a  depression  or  groove  presenting  innumerable 
small  pits  or  openings.  This  corresponds  to  a  part  of  the 
sensitive  foot  called  the  coronary  band,  which  will  bo 
noticed  again. 


■8 


THE   ART   OF    HORSE-SHOEING. 


A  section  of  wall  enables  ns  to  see  variations  in  its 
thickness.     (Fig.  4.)     It  is  thickest  at  the  toe,  becoming 


Fig.  3.— Half  of  a  Hoof,  showing  tlio  inside. 

gradually  thinner  towards  the  heels;  thus  affording 
strength  and  solidity  to  resist  wear  at  one  part,  as  well 
as  pliancy  at  another  to  ward  off  concussion. 


Fio,  4.— Transverse  Section  of  WaU,  showing  variation  in  thickness. 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT. 


The  structure  of  the  wall  is  fibrous,  the  fibres 
running  j^arallel  to  each  other,  and  with  the  same  obli- 
quity as  that  presented  by  the  front  of  the  walL 
Although  the  wall  varies  in  thickness  from  before  back- 
wards, it  does  not  from  above  downwards.  It  main- 
tains the  same  thickness  from  the  coronet  to  its  lower 
circumference. 

The  layers  of  the  wall  are  hardest  externally, 
becoming  softer  as  they  approach  the  inner  surface — a 
condition  due  to  the  outer  layers  being  exposed  to  fric- 
tion and  evaporation.  This  is  a  simple  and  valuable 
provision  of  nature  which  should  not  be  interfered  with. 
The  hard  outer  layer  is  best  adapted  to  withstand  wear, 
and  its  density  protects  the  deeper  layers  from  evapora- 
tion. This  maintains  the  whole  wall  at  the  degree  of 
sof  iness  and  toughness  which  best  preserves  elasticity  and 
strength  of  horn. 


•     Fig.  5.— The  Sole  with  Frog  removed. 

The  Sole  is  that  division  of  the  hoof  which  forms 
the  floor  of  the  foot.     It  is  situated  within  the  lower 


10 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


border  of  tlie  wall,  and  is  slightly  arched,  so  that  on  a 
hard,  level  surface ,  its  central  part  takes  no  bearing. 
(Fig.  5.)  Posteriorly  the  sole  is  divided  by  a  triangular 
space  into  which  the  frog  fits,  and  thus  its  continuation 
to  the  heels  consists  of  two  angular  portions  embraced 
between  the  bars  and  the  wall.  The  unmutilated  sole  is 
throughout  of  nearly  equal  thickness,  but  a  slight  excess 
round  the  circumference  gives  firmer  attachment  to  tho 
wall. 

The  inner  surface  presents  a.  finely  pitted  appearance, 
which  is  most  marked  at  the  toe  and  round  its  border. 
The  part  immediately  related  to  the  frog  shows  feAV  pits, 
and  we  shall  find  that  the  whole  surface  corresponds  to 
the  sensitive  parts  to  which  it  is  attached. 

The  structure  of  the  sole  is,  like  the  wall,  fibrous; 
but  the  fibres  are  smaller.  They  run  downwards  and 
forwards  in  the  same  direction  as  those  of  the  v/all.  The 
outer  layers  are  the  hardest  and  protect  the  deeper  from 
injury. 


Fig,  6.— The  Frog,  detached  from  the  Sole. 


The  Frog  is  the  smallest  division  of  the  hoof,  and 
is  a  triangular  shaped  body  filling  up  the  space  left  be- 
tween the  bars.  (Fig.  G.)  Its  broad  base  is  rounded  and 
prominent,  and  is  continued  laterally  by  a  thin  layer 
which  binds  tocrether  the  heels  and  envelopes  the  back  of 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT. 


11 


tke  foot.  This  thin  layer  is  contimious,  with  a  horny 
Land  extending  round  the  iipper  part  of  the  wall  at  its. 
junction  with  the  hair,  and  sometimes  prolonged  down- 
wards on  the  surface  of  the  wall.  (Fig.  7.)     It  appears  to 


Fig.  7.— The  Frog  and  Frog-band. 


"be  a  continuation  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  analo- 
gous to  the  free  border  of  skin  at  the  root  of  the  human 
nail.  (Fig.  8.)  It  serves  the  useful  purpose  of  covering 
and  protecting  the  young  horn  of  the  wall  at  its  source  of 
growth. 


Fig.  8.— The  Frog-band  deUched  from  wall  by  a  small  wedge. 

The  point  of  the  frog,  much  the  harder  part,  extends 
forward  to  the  centre  of  the  sole.  Though  situated  bet- 
ween the  bars,  the  frog  is  only  attached  to  their  upper 


12 


THE  ART   OP   HORSE-SHOEING. 


border,  tlie  sides  remaining  free  and  separate.  Thus  on 
each  side  is  formed  a  deep  fissure  which  perjnits  the  frog 
to  expand  laterally  when  compressed,  without  such  force 
being  continued  to  the  sides  of  the  foot.  The  frog  is 
elastic,  and  when  pressed  upon  must  expand  slightly. 
If  these  spaces  between  frog  and  bars  did  not  exist,  the 
foot  would  be  injured  when  the  fi'og  was  compressed  by 
the  weight  of  the  horse — either  the  sensitive  parts  within 
would  be  bruised  or  the  heels  would  be  forced  apart. 

The  centre  of  the  frog  presents  a  depression  or 
"cleft,"  caused  by  the  doubling  in  of  the  horn.  Few 
shod  feet  exhibit  it  of  natural  ai)pearance,  and  the  term 
cleft,  by  implying  a  narrow  deep  fissure,  keeps  up  the 
false  notion.  The  cleft  should  be  shallow  and  rounded. 
It  serves  two  purposes — it  increases  the  mobility  of  the 
frog,  and  by  breaking  the  regularity  of  surface  affords  a 
secure  fooi-liold  on  level  gromid. 


Fio.  9.— Section  of  Toot  at  cleft. 


Fig.  10.— Section  of  Foot  at  cleft. 


The  prominence  of  the  frog  might  lead  a  sujjerficial 
observer  to  consider  it  a  thick  solid  mass;  and  I  believe 
this  mistake  is  the  cause  of  its  too  frequent  mutilation. 
It  is  merely  a  layer  of  horn  following  the  outline  ot  the 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  13 

structures  witliin,  wliicli  are  similarly  prominent  and 
irregular  in  surface.  (Figs.  9  and  10.)  The  first  diagram 
«liows  a  section  through  the  point  of  the  frog,  the  second 
■a,  section  through  the  cleft. 

The  frog  is  fibrous,  though  not  to  such  marked 
degree  as  the  other  portions  of  the  hoof.  Its  chief  equali- 
ties are  elasticity  and  toughness. 

The  Secreting  Structures. 

If  we  macerate  a  dead  foot  in  water  for  a  week  or 
two,  the  hoof  may  be  removed  entire  without  injuring 
the  tissues  within.  In  this  way  the  sensitive  foot  or 
*'  quick  "  is  exposed  to  view,  and  jjresents  an  exact  coun- 
terpa,rt  of  the  inside  of  the  hoof.  The  sensitive  foot 
consists  of  a  layer  of  fibrous  tissue'  stretched  over  the 
bones  and  other  structures  which  form  the  centre  of  the 
foot.  It  is  plentifully  supplied  with  blood-vessels  and 
nerves  necessary  to  its  double  function  as  the  source  of 
horn  growth  and  as  the  tactile  organ  of  the  foot.  Horn 
is,  of  course,  not  sensitive,  although  the  slightest  touch 
on  a  horse's  hoof  is  recognized  by  the  animal,  and  this 
feeling  is  due  to  the  impression  made  upon  the  sensitive 
foot.  In  the  living  horse  any  injury  to  the  "quick'* 
<;auses  the  greatest  pain,  and,  although  this  sensitiveness 
is  a  serious  disadvantage  in  disease,  it  is  a  most  valuable 
provision  in  health,  enabling  the  horse,  even  through  a 
thick  layer  of  horn,  to  recognize  the  quality  of  the  sur- 
face Tij^on  which  he  may  be  standing  or  moving.  It  is 
this  sense  of  touch — this  tactile  function — which  demands 
that  the  sensitive  foot  should  be  so  bountifully  supplied 
with  nerves. 

Every  farrier  knows  how  profusely  blood  flows  from 
•any  wound  of  the  "quick " — evidence  that  the  part  is  well 
supplied  with  blood-vessels.  This  full  supply  of  blood  is 
not  merely  for  the  ordinary  waste  and  repair  which 
takes  place  in  every  tissue;  it  is  to  meet  a  special  demand 
— to  supply  the  material  for  the  production  of  horn. 
The  sensitive  foot  is  the  secreting  structure  of  the  hoof, 
■and  the  source  of  the  constant  growth  and  reproductioa 


14 


THE   ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


of  horn.  It  corresponds  witli  great  exactness  to  the- 
inside  of  the  hoof,  and  as  we  have  described  the  hoof  in 
sections  it  may  be  convenient  to  follow  that  course  with 
this  structure,  and  to  describe  the  sensilive  frog,  the  -sfu- 
sitive  sole,  and  the  sensitive  lamince.  We  shall  begin  with 
the  last. 

The  Sensitive  Lamina.— Corresponding  to  the- 
horny  leaves  on  the  inside  of  the  wall,  the  sensitive  foot 
presents  an  arrangement  of  rninute  parailul  folds  which 
are  called  the  sensitive  laminfe.  (Fig.  11.)  Between 
these  the  horny  lamin&e  rest,  so  that  there  is  a  kind  of 
interleaved  attachment  which  affords  tiio  very  tirmest 
connection  between  the  vv^all  and  the  sensitive  foot.  If 
the  laminee  be  laid  bare  in  a  living  horse  by  removal  of 
the  wall,  it  is  found  that  they  have  tlie  power  to  secrete 
a  kind  of  horn,  not  a  hard,  fil:)rous  horn  like  that  of  the 
wall,  but  a  softer  variety.  This  function  is  not  very 
active  in  health  or  we  shcrJd  find  that  the  lower  edge  of 
the  wall  was  thicker  than  the  upper;  but  it  exists,  and 
is  very  evident  in  som.e  cases  of  disease. 


Fig.  11.— Foot  with  hoof  removed  showing  at  the  upper  part  the 
Coronary  band,  and  below  the  Sensitive  Laminae. 

In  laminitis,  the  wall  at  the  toe  is  often  pushed  for^ 
•ward  out  of  jjosition  by  a  horny  mass  formed  by  the- 
laminae,  and  so  we  have  the  deformity  of  an  excessive^■ 
length  of  toe.     In  some  cases  of  long  continued  sand- 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  15 

■crack,  the  irritation  of  the  laminae  causes  excessive 
•secretion,  and  a  horn  tumor  results.  The  sensitive 
laminae,  then,  fulfil  two  functions;  they  offer  a  firm  con- 
necting medium  for  the  wall,  and  they  secrete  horn. 
By  the  cruel  experiment  of  removing  the  horny  sole 
and  frog  of  a  living  horse  and  then  forcing  him  to  stand 
•on  the  maimed  foot  on  a  level  surface,  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  laminae  are  capable  of  alone  supporting  the 
weight  of  the  animal.  It  has  been  argued  from  this  that 
the  laminae  always  siipport  the  weight,  and  that  the 
horse's  foot  may  be  described  as  being  slung  by  the 
connecting  laminae.  Tliis  is  not  true.  The  frog  and 
sole  help  to  support  weight,  and  the  hoof  acts  as  one 
continuous  whole,  each  part  taking  its  direct  and  pro- 
portionate share  of  the  weight  j^laced  upon  the  foot. 
'  The  sensitive  laminae  are  not  elastic,  they  are  unyielding, 
■  and,  therefore,  allow  no  downward  yielding  which  would 
impose  excessive  pressure  on  the  sole. 

Tkh  Coronary  Band.  (See  Fig.  11.)  The  sensitive 
laminae  do  not  cover  the  whole  of  the  upright  portions  of 
the  sensitive  foot.  There  is  between  their  upper  extre- 
mity and  the  line  which  separates  the  skin  from  the 
sensitive  foot,  a  convex  band  which  runs  round  the 
upper  border  of  the  foot,  and  is  turned  downwards  and 
inwards  at  the  heels.  This  is  called  the  coronary  band, 
and  corresponds  to  the  groove  which  we  noticed  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  upper  border  of  the  wall.  On  its  sur- 
face are  innumerable  small  projections  or  papillae  which, 
in  the  living  animal,  fit  into  the  openings  on  the  groove 
of  the  wall.  From  each  of  these  papillae  grows  a  horn 
fibre,  and  from  the  surface  between  tliem  is  formed  a 
softer  horny  matter — the  two  products  forming  together 
the  substance  of 'the  wall.  The  coronary  band  is,  then, 
an  important  structure,  being  the  source  from  whence 
the  wall  is  produced.  Upon  the  healthy  condition  of 
"this  band  depends  the  soundness  of  the  wall,  and  any 
interference  with  its  integrity  must  lead  to  defects  or 
^deformities  in  the  wall. 

The  Sensitive  Sole  (Fig.  12)  is  that  portion  of  the 


16  THE   ART   OP  HORSE-SHOEING. 

** quick"  to  wicli  the  sole  is  attaclied.  Its  surface  is; 
covered  with  papillae,  like  those  on  the  coronary  band, 
but  much  smaller,  giving  an  appearance  somewhat  like- 
the  pile  of  velvet.  From  these  the  horn  fibres  of  the 
sole  are  formed,  and  a  firm  means  of  connection  i& 
afforded  for  the  floor  of  the  hoof. 


Fig.  12.— Under  Surfaco  of  Foot  shovring  Sensitive  E'lr.^  and  Sole. 

The  Sensitive  Frog  in  structure  resembles  the 
sensitive  sole,  bnt  its  papilljs  are  very  much  smaller,  and 
the  surface,  therefore,  is  smoother.  The  irregular,  pro- 
minent surface  of  the  frog,  with  its  cleft  and  the  space 
at  each  side  of  it,  is  exactly  reproduced  on  the  sensitive 
frog,  as  might  be  expected,  for  the  one  is  moulded  on  the 
other.  There  is  one  difference  between  the  sensitive- 
frog  and  the  other  jiortions  of  the  sensitive  foot  whicli  I 
may  here  mention.  It  is  not  attached  to  the  bones  of  the 
foot,  except  by  its  point,  but  is  situated  behind  the  bone, 
and  has  as  a  basis  a  mass  of  soft  tissue  which  forms  art-, 
important  cushion  or  pad,  to  be  referred  to  later. 


FORJI    AND    ACTION   OF    THE   FOOT.  17 

Growtli  of  Hoof. 

Like  every  otlier  part  of  an  animal  body,  tlie  lioof  is 
constantly  changing.  "Wear  and  tear  cause  waste  of  the 
horn,  which  is  replenished  by  growth.  When  wear 
exceeds  growth  the  foot  becomes  denuded  of  horn,  and 
lameness  results.  When  growth  exceeds  wear,  the  hoof 
becomes  disproj^orfcionately  long,  and  some  parts  suffer 
by  the  overgrowth  of  others — for  instance,  whenever  the 
heels  are  unduly  high,  the  frog'becomes  small  and  weak. 
In  a  state  of  nature,  the  horse's  foot  keeps  itself  of  pro- 
portionate form.  On  hard  ground,  the  hoof  is  worn 
away  as  quickly  as  it  grows.  On  soft  ground,  it  may, 
for  a  time,  become  overgiown,  but  this  is  rectified  by 
the  soft  horji  becoming  fractured  and  broken  off.  In 
enclosed,  cultivated  grounds,  the  movements  of  the  horse, 
even  on  grass  land,  are  too  limited  to  ensure  a  propor- 
tionatf-3  form  of  hoof.  When  horses  are  turned  out 
without  shoes,  the  feet  should  not  be  left  to  take  care  of 
themselves,  unless  the  pasture  is  of  large  area  and  the 
time  at  grass  extends  for  several  months. 

In  a  hoof  which  is  overgrown — and  all  shod  feet 
become  overgrown  in  four  or  five  weeks — there  is  appar- 
ently a  greater  excess  of  horn  at  the  toe  than  elsewhere. 
This  is  due  to  the  oblique  direction  of  the  wall  at  the  toe, 
and  to  the  fact  that  the  horn  fibres  of  the  hoof  do  not 
grow  down  vertically,  but  oljliquely  forward.  When 
the  natural  wear  of  the  hoof  is  prevented,  the  effect  of 
growth  is  to  lengthen  the  toe  and  carry  forward  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  foot.  ISTow,  this  bearing  surface 
has  a  proper  relative  position  to  the  limb  above  it. 
Therefore  a  disproportionate  foot  must  injuriously  affect 
both  the  action  and  position  of  the  whole  limb. 

The  rate  at  which  the  wall  grows  varies  greatly  in 
different  horses,  and  is  affected  by  external  conditions. 
The  good  average  wall  grows  nearly  one  inch  in  three 
months,  and  the  whole  hoof  is  replaced  in  from  ten  to 
fifteen  months.  The  hoof  grows  more  rapidly  when  a 
horse  is  actively  exercised  than  when  he  is  confined  in  a 
box.     Febrile  diseases  check  growth,  and  irregularities 


18  THE  ART  OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

of  the  system  cause  the  formation  of  ridges  in  the  horn, 
each  one  commencing  at  the  coronet  and  being  carried 
down  with  the  growing  horn  until  the  hoof  is  marked  by 
a  series  of  rings  running  transversely  and  parallel  to 
each  other.  These  rings  are  of  themselves  no  detriment 
to  a  horse,  but  they  mark  irregularities  of  growth  which 
may  have  been  due  to  illness  or  lameness. 

The  growth  of  horn  on  a  shod  foot  is  affected  by  the 
bearing  it  takes.  When  a  part  of  the  wall  takes  no 
bearing  on  the  shoe  it  grows  quicker  than  that  which 
does.  We  see  this  when  a  shoe  is  so  fitted  that  the  heels 
take  no  direct  pressure  on  the  shoe,  also  when  a  portion 
of  wall  is  broken  at  the  quarters,  and  again  when,  for 
any  reason,  a  portion  of  the  edge  of  the  wall  has  been 
rasped  away  to  prevent  bearing  upon  some  sjjecial  spot. 
In  all  these  cases,  after  the  shoe  has  been  worn  a  month, 
it  will  bo  found  that  the  horn  has  grown  more  rapidly 
at  the  part  where  bearing  did  not  take  place,  and,  when 
the  shoe  is  removed,  the  horn  which  was  relieved  of 
pressure  is  found  to  have  been  in  apposition  with 
the  slioe. 

The  growth  of  horn  cannot  be  accelerated  by  any 
application  to  its  surface.  If  we  desire  to  hasten  growth 
of  the  wall  we  can  do  so  by  stimulating  the  part  from 
which  it  is  produced,  i.e.,  the  coronary  band.  A  mild 
blister  to  the  coronet  causes  considerable  increase  in  the 
rapidity  of  growth,  but  no  ointments  applied  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall  affect  its  production  in  the  least,  though 
they  may  modify  its  condition  and  prevent  dryness  and 
brittleness. 

The  sole  grows  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  wall, 
but  it  wears  quite  differently.  It  never  becomes  over- 
grown to  the  extent  seen  in  some  instances  of  the  wall. 
The  hard,  firm  structure  of  the  wall,  if  not  worn  down  by 
friction  on  roads  or  dry,  hard  surfaces,  may  grow  to  a 
great  length.  As  a  rule,  when  much  overgrown,  it  splits 
in  the  direction  of  its  fibres  and  becomes  detached  m 
broken  fragments.  The  sole,  when  overgrown,  has  a 
tendency  to  become  detached  in  flakes,  and  never  very 
much  exceeds  its  normal  thickness  without  becoming 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  19 

•dry  and  brittle,  when  the  movements  of  the  horse  cause 
it  to  break  np  and  fall  off. 

The  frog,  when  it  takes  a  bearing  on  the  ground, 
wears  off  in  shreds.  A  frog  which  takes  no  bearing 
■dries  up,  and  sometimes  a  large,  superficial  layer  is  cast 
-off.  Though  the  softest  of  the  horny  divisions  of  the 
hoof,  the  frog  is  able  to  withstand  wear  and  tear  as  well 
as  any  of  the  others.  Being  elastic  and  resting  upon  soft 
tissues,  it  is  able  to  yield  to  any  undue  pressure  and 
leave  the  firmer  horn  of  the  wall  and  bars  to  sustain  the 
greater  strain.  The  growth  of  the  frog  depends  a  great 
deal  upon  the  form  of  the  back  parts  of  the  wall.  If  the 
heels  become  overgrown,  the  frog  is  removed  from  bear- 
ing and  consequently  wastes.  High  heels  have  always 
between  them  a  small  frog.  On  the  other  hand,  low, 
weak  heels  have  always  a  large  frog,  and  the  explanation 
is  that  the  increased  bearing  thrown  on  the  frog  causes 
greater  development. 

Properties  of  Horn. — Horn  is  light,  hard,  tough, 
and  elastic,  properties  most  essential  to  its  usefulness  as 
a  i:)rotector  of  the  foot.  Horn  is  porous,  and  absorbs 
moisture.  Too  much  moisture  in  horn  weakens  it,  and 
therefore  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  natural  pro- 
tection against  this  is  the  hard  outer  layer  of  the  hoof. 
"When  this  layer  is  rasped  off,  moisture  is  more  easily 
absorbed  until  the  dry,  hard  surface  is  restored  by 
■exposure  and  friction. 

Horn  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  thus  an  equally 
.good  protective  against  the  effects  of  snow  in  some  coun- 
tries, and  of  hot,  dry  sands  in  others.  With  a  sound, 
thick  hoof,  the  application  of  a  red-hot  shoe  produces 
very  little  effect  on  the  internal  structures,  provided,  of 
course,  it  remain  in  contact  only  a  reasonable  time. 
With  a  foot  protected  by  a  thin  layer  of  horn,  fitting  a 
red-hot  shoe  must  be  done  quickly,  or  it  may  damage  the 
soft  tissues. 

Dissection  of  the  Foot. 

So  far  we  have  only  described  the  outer  covering  of 
the  foot  and  the  structure  from  which  it  grows  and  by 


so  THE  ART  OF  HORSE  SHOEING. 

-which  it  is  connected  to  the  parts  within.  A  little  deeper 
examination  is  necessary  to  understand  the  mechanism 
of  the  whole  organ. 

If  we  divide  into  two  lateral  halves,  a  foot  cut  off  at 
the  fetlock  joint,  we  have  a  section  which  should  show 
the  whole  of  the  deeper  structures.  In  the  centre,  we  see 
the  three  lower  bones  of  the  limb— the  pastern,  coronet, 
and  pedal.     (Fig.    11.)     On  the  front  surface  of  these 


Fig,  11.— Section  of  Foot. 

"bones,  we  notice  a  tendon  or  sinew  which  comes  from 
above  the  knee  and  is  fixed  to  the  upper  part  of  the  pedal 
bone.  At  the  back  of  the  bones,  two  very  large  tendons 
Tun  down  and  are  fixed  on  the  last  two  bones.  These 
tendons  are  the  structures  through  which  the  movements 
of  the  foot  are  made.  They  have  in  themselves  no  power 
of  contraction,  but  they  are  connected  above  the  knee, ' 
and  in  the  hind  leg  above  the  hock,  to  powerful  muscles 
which  possess  the  power  of  contraction.  When  these 
muscles  contract,  the  tendons  are  drawn  up  towards  knee 
or  hock,  and  so  move  the  foot  backwards  or  forwards. 

To  permit  movement  of  one  bone  ui)on  another,  the 
ends  of  the  bones  are  suitably  shaped,  and  covered  with 
a  layer  of  gristle  or  cartilage.  To  limit  the  movement 
^■ud  to  hold  the  bones  together,  the  ends  of  each  bone  are- 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT. 


21 


surrounded  by  ligaments,  and  tlius  we  have  joints  formed. 
The  pastern  bone  is  altogether  above  the  level  of  the 
foot,  the  coronet  bone  is  partially  within  the  hoof,  and 
the  joint  between  it  and  the  pedal  bone  is  quite  within. 


FiQ.  12.— &ide  view  of  Pedal  Bone. 


The  pedal,  often  called  the  coffin  bone  (Fig.  12),  is  entirely 
"within  the  hoof  and  fills  the  front  part  of  the  horny 
envelope  comiiletely.      It  is  a  peculiarly  shaped  bone. 


Fig,  13. — Under  surface  of  Pedal  Bone. 

being  continued  backwards  by  two  projections  whicli 
follow  the  course  of  the  wall  to  a  little  beyond  the  quar- 
ters of  the  foot.      (Fig.   13.)     From  this  point  to  the- 


22 


THE  ART  OF    HORSE-SHOEING. 


-extremity  of  tlie  heels,  the  wall  is  not  supported  by  bone, 
but  by  strong  plates  of  gristle,  which  are  called  the 
lateral  cartilages. 


Fig.  11— The  Lateral  Cartilage. 

The  Lateral  Cartilages  are  situated  one  on  either 

-side  of  the  foot,  partly  within  and  partly  without  the 

hoof.     They  form  the  basis  upon  which  the  back  part  of 

the  wall  is  moulded,  and  being  elastic,  permit  a  certaia 


Pig.  15.— Coffin  Bone  and  Lateral  Cartilages  seen  from  above, 

amount  of  movement  in  the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot. 
(Fig.  14.)  If  the  coffin  bone  filled  the  whole  hoof,  the 
foot  would  be  too  rigid.     With  bone  at  the  front  portion. 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT. 


23 


we  have  a  firm  surface  for  attacliment,  and  with,  cartilage 
at  the  back,  we  have  an  equally  firm  attachment,  but 
one  that  will  yield  to  blows  or  pressure  and  thus  better 
protect  the  internal  parts.  These  cartilages  extend  above  ■ 
the  level  of  the  hoof,  and  may  be  easily  felt  in  the  living 
horse  at  the  back  part  of  the  coronet.  (Fig.  15.)  Be- 
tween them,  and  behind  the  body  of  the  coffin  bone  is  a . 
large  space  which  is  filled  up  by  a  mass  of  soft  tissue,  to 
which  various  names  have  been  given,  such  as  plantar- 
cushion,  frog-pad,  etc. 

The  Frog-Pad  is  the  name  under  which  we  shall 
notice  it.  It  forms  the  bulbs  of  the  heels  and  is  the  soft 
basis  upon  which  is  spread  the  sensitive  frog.  It  extends 
from  side  to  side  of  the  foot  between  the  two  lateral 
cartilages,  and  fills  up  all  the  space  within  the  hoof 
behind  the  body  of  the  coffin  bone.  The  structure  of  this 
pad  may  be  described  roughly  as  consisting  of  a  network 
of  fibrous  bands,  having  the  interstices  filled  up  with 
elastic  tissue.     (Fig.  16.)     Down  the  centre  of  the  j)ad 


Fig.  16.— Seciloa  of  Foot  showing  the  Frog-Pad  and  at  each  side 
the  cut  edge  of  the  Lateral  Cartilage 

runs  a  vertical  partition  of  inelastic  fibres;  from  this, 
strong,  fibrous  bands  pass  to  each  cartilage,  and  so  the 
whole  of  the  back  part  of  the  foot  is  tied  together.  The 
heels  and  quarters  maj'-  be  pressed  together  to  some 
extent,  but  they  are  prevented  from  being  forced  asunder 
by  the  fibrous  connections  of  the  frog-pad.     During  pro- 


24  THE  ART  OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

gression,  tlie  downward  movement  of  the  coronet  bone  is 
provided  for  by  this  soft  pad,  and  so  is  an  upward  move- 
ment of  the  frog,  when  excessive  bearing  is  placed 
upon  it. 

The  frog-pad  serves  other  purposes  besides  those  we 
have  just  referred  to.  It  is  essentially  a  cushion  or  pad 
to  prevent  jar  or  concussion,  but  it  also  plays  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  action  of  the  foot,  as  we  shall  see  later  on. 

The  Coronary  Cushion  or  Pad  is  another  mass 
of  tissue  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  frog-pad.  It  is 
situated  just  above  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof,  and 
gives  to  the  coronet  its  prominence  and  elasticity.  At 
this  part  of  the  foot  there  is  an  enormous  number  of 
small  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  and  the  coronary  pad 
forms  not  only  a  base  for  these  to  rest  on,  but  a  neces- 
sary protection  for  them.  If,  instead  of  this  elastic  bed, 
they  were  placed  merely  between  the  skin  and  the  hard 
bones  and  tendons  of  the  part,  they  would  be  injured  by 
every  slight  bruise.  Even  with  this  cushion,  we  have, 
in  practice,  very  many  serious  conditions  following 
bruise  of  the  coronet 

Blood-vessels  op  the  Foot.— -It  is  not  necessary  to 
describe  the  course  of  these  vessels.  All  we  need  remem- 
ber is  that  every  part  of  the  tissues  within  the  hoof  is 
very  plentifully  supplied  with  blood,  and  that  the  flow 
of  blood  is  most  rapid  when  the  foot  is  in  action.  In  a 
dead  foot,  from  which  the  blood  has  escaped,  a  certain 
amount  of  movement  of  the  bones  within  the  hoof  is 
easily  effected.  In  the  living  foot,  when  every  vessel  is 
filled  with  blood,  no  such  movement  takes  place.  The 
blood  in  the  vessels  forms  a  sort  of  water-bed,  which 
assists  in  preventing  concussion  and  which  distributes 
evenly  over  the  whole  organ  the  pressure  applied,  when 
weight  is  thrown  on  the  foot.  In  studying  the  dead  foot 
with  a  view  to  understand  its  mechanism,  we  must  not 
lose  sight  of  the  difference  which  results  from  having  in 
one  case  the  blood-vessels  empty,  and  in  the  other — the 
livino;  animal— the  blood-vessels  full. 


*o 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  25 

The  Foot  as  a  "Whole. 

Tlie  details  I  have  given  of  the  structure  and  uses  of 
-each  separate  part  of  the  foot  Avill,  I  hope,  be  sufficient 
to  enable  us  to  understand  the  form  and  action  of  the 
-organ  as  a  whole. 

No  one  part  of  the  foot  is  of  greater  importance  than 
another;  each  is  dependent  for  its  highest  development 
and  soundest  condition  upon  the  integrity  of  neigh- 
boring parts. 

A  weak  wall  allows  of  the  flattening  and  spreading  of 
the  sole,  whilst  a  weak  sole  x^ermits  contraction  of  the 
wall.  Overgrown  heels  cause  wasting  of  the  frog,  but 
low,  weak  heels  are  usually  accompanied  by  excessive 
development  of  frog. 

The  special  function  of  the  foot  is  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  the  animal  whilst  standing  or  moving.  The 
horse  standing  squarely  on  all  four  feet  rests  his  weight 
chiefly  on  the  lower  circumference  of  the  wall.  On  level 
ground,  the  sole,  on  account  of  its  arched  form,  takes  no 
direct  bearing,  but  if  sole  and  wall  be  sound,  a  propor- 
tion of  all  pressure  applied  to  the  wall  is  trail smitted  to 
the  sole.  So,  also,  must  all  weight  imposed  on  the  arch 
of  the  sole  be  transmitted,  through  its  abutments  or 
union  with  the  wall,  to  the  wall.  If  the  sole  bo  so  thin 
that  it  jaelds  to  pressure,  then  its  proper  action  is  des- 
troyed, and  instead  of  acting  like  an  arch  and  supporting 
weight  imposed  on  it,  it  yields,  and  injury  results.  The 
arched  form  of  the  sole  indicates  that  it  was  not  intended 
to  take  a  direct  bearing  on  hard  ground.  On  a  soft  sur- 
face, the  edge  of  the  wall  sinks  and  the  whole  under 
surface  of  the  foot  takes  a  direct  bearing.  Pressure  of 
the  sole  on  the  soft  surface  does  no  harm,  because  it  is 
diffused  evenly  over  the  wholo  of  the  sole.  We  take 
advantage  of  this  when  the  wall  is  diseased  or  injured, 
and  we  desire  to  throw  on  the  sole  a  larger  share  of 
weight.  We  turn  such  animals  out  into  a  soft  field  or 
stable  them  on  sand  or  saw-dust.  Any  system  of  shoeing 
founded  upon  the  true  form  and  action  of  the  foot  must 
recognize  the  arch,  and  not  endeavor  to  force  the  sole 


26  THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

to  take  a  bearing  for  whicli  it  is  not  adapted.  There  is- 
only  one  part  of  the  sole  which  should  act  as  a  bearing- 
surface,  viz.,  that  outer  border  whicli  is  firmlj'  joined  to 
the  wall.  This  part — the  abutment  of  the  arch — is  des- 
tined by  nature  to  take  a  bearing,  and  through  it  the 
■whole  of  the  sole  supports  its  share  of  weight. 

The  frog  takes  a  bearing  on  the  ground,  but  it  has  a 
weight-sustaining  function  quite  secondary  to  the  harder 
and  firmer  jiarts  of  the  hoof.  It  is  formed  of  a  softer 
horn,  and  it  has  above  it  only  soft  tissues  which  permit 
yielding.  The  frog,  then,  when  weight  is  placed  upon  it- 
by  the  standing  horse,  recedes  from,  pressuro  and  leaves 
the  heels  (wall  and  bars)  to  sustain  the  primarj^  weight. 
"Wall,  sole  and  frog,  each  take  their  share  in  supporting- 
weight,  but  this  function  is  distributed  over  them  in  dif- 
ferent degrees,  a.nd  it  is  f  uliilled  by  each  in  a  varying 
manner.  During  progression,  the  foot  is  repeatedly 
raised  from  and  replaced  on  the  ground.  It  has  not 
only  to  support  weight,  but  to  sustain  the  effects  of  con- 
tact with  the  ground  at  each  stop,  and  the  effects  of 
being  tlie  point  of  resistance  when  the  body  is  carried 
for\7ard  and  the  foot  is  again  raised  from  the  ground. 

What  part  of  the  foot  comes  first  to  the  ground?' 
Many  different  answers  have  been  given  to  this  ques- 
tion. It  has  been  said  by  some  that  the  toe  first  touches 
the  ground;  by  others,  that  the  foot  is  laid  fi.it  down; 
and  by  a  few,  that  the  heel  is  the  first  part  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  now 
necessary  to  argue  this  question  on  a  purely  theoretical 
basis.  Instantaneous  photograpy  has  shown  that  on 
level  ground,  at  all  paces,  the  horse  touches  the  ground 
first  with  the  heel.  This  fact  gives  significance  to  tho 
structural  differences  we  find  between  the  front  and  back 
portions  of  the  foot.  At  the  back  part  of  the  foot,  we 
liave  the  wall  thinner  than  elsewhere,  we  have  the 
moveable  and  elastic  frog,  the  lateral  cartilages,  and  the 
frog-pad.  We  have,  in  fact,  a  whole  series  of  soft  and 
elastic  structures  so  arranged  as  to  provide  a  mechanism 
best  adapted  to  meet  shock  and  to  avoid  concussion. 
Whilst  drawing  heavy  loads,  or  ascending  or  descending: 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  FOOT.  27 

liills,  the  horse  may  vary  his  action  to  suit  the  circum- 
stances, and  then  we  have  the  exception,  which  proves 
the  rule — then  we  have  sometimes  the  heel,  sometimes 
the  toe  brought  first  to  the  ground. 

At  the  time  when  the  foot  first  touches  the  ground, 
the  leg  is  extended  forward  and  the  j)astern  is  in  the 
same  oblique  position  to  the  shank  as  when  a  horse  is 
standing.  This  obliquity  of  the  pastern  is  another  safe- 
gr.ard  against  concussion,  and  it  renders  impossible  the 
first  contact  with  the  ground  at  any  point  other  than  at 
the  heel.  As  the  leg  becomes  straightened,  the  weight 
of  the  body  is  imposed  upon  the  foot,  but  the  greatest 
strain  arrives  just  before  the  toe  leaves  the  ground,  for 
then  there  is  not  only  weight  to  sustain,  but  the  friction 
to  be  borne  which  results  from  the  toe  being  the  fulcrum 
upon  which  falls  the  whole  effect  of  the  muscular  effort 
necessary  to  raise  and  carry  forward  the  body  of  the 
animal.  The  front  part  of  the  foot  is  structurally  vrell 
adi-xptcd  for  its  use.  It  presents  the  thickest  and  strong- 
est part  of  the  horny  covering;  and,  as  an  inside  basis,  it 
h.p.s  the  unyielding  coffin  bone.  Thus  we  have  at  the 
too  .strength  and  rigidity;  at  the  heels,  strength  and 
elasticity. 

Another  important  point  in  the  action  of  the  foot  is 
implied  by  the  question — does  it  expand  when  weight  is 
thrown  on  it?  The  ijrinciples  of  horse-shoeing  require 
that  this  question  should  be  answered.  There  are  those 
who  say  that  the  foot  does  not  alternately  expand  and 
retract  as  weight  is  placed  upon  or  removed  from  it. 
There  aro  others  who  assert  that  the  expansion  of  the 
foot  is  an  important  natural  function  that  must  be  pro- 
vided for  in  any  system  of  shoeing.  It  is  agreed  by  most 
observers  that  at  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof,  more  par- 
ticularly at  the  heels,  expa>nsion  does  occur.  It  is  when 
we  come  to  the  lower  border  of  the  foot  that  the  state- 
ments are  most  conflicting.  Ordinary  measurements 
taken  at  this  part  with  calipers  or  by  tracings  on  paper 
of  the  foot  when  raised  from  the  ground  and  when  rest- 
ing upon  it,  show  no  variations  in  the  width  of  the  foot. 
These   methods    of    measuremejit    are    not    sufficiently 


28  THE   ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

delicate  to  be  trustworthy.  Experimentalists  in  Ger- 
many and  in  this  country  have  recently  used  an  appar- 
a,tus  by  which  the  slightest  variations  are  detected  by 
electrical  contact,  and  the  results  are  very  interesting. 
These  experiments  show  that  in  a  well-formed,  healthy 
foot  the  hoof,  throughout  its  posterior  two-thirds,  does 
expand  to  pressure,  and  perhaps  that  the  arch  of  the 
sole  is  slightly  flattened.  This  expansion  is,  however, 
comparativ^ely  slight — about  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a 
slieet  of  writing  paper — and  may  practically  be  disre- 
garded in  considering  the  best  methods  of  shoeing  sound 
feet. 

One  result  of  these  experiments  is  to  show  what  an 
important  part  the  frog  plays  in  the  foot,  and  also  how 
the  action  of  one  j)art  depends  upon  the  conditions  of 
others.  V/lien  the  frog  rests  firmly  on  the  ground  and 
weight  is  placed  upon  the  foot,  expansion  occurs,  espe- 
cially at  the  upper  or  coronary  border  of  the  hoof. 
When  the  frog  does  not  touch  the  ground  and  weight  is 
imposed  upon  the  foot,  contraction  occurs.  The  expla- 
nation of  this  difference  seems  to  be  as  follows.  When 
weight  is  placed  upon  a  foot,  the  coronet  bone  is 
depressed  upon  the  soft  mass  of  the  frog-pad.  With  a 
sound  frog  taking  a  bearing  upon  the  ground,  the  frog- 
pad  cannot  descend,  and  the  compression  to  which  it  is 
therefore  submitted  causes  it  to  bulge  laterally  and  so 
expand  the  back  of  the  foot.  When  the  frog  does  not 
reach  the  ground,  and  weight  is  placed  upon  the  frog- 
pad,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  it  yielding  downwards, 
and  in  so  doing,  the  fibrous  bands  connecting  together 
the  two  lateral  cartilages  of  the  foot  are  depressed  and 
the  cartilages  drawn  together;  hence  the  contraction  of 
the  foot.  No  better  illustration  could  be  given  of  the 
unity  of  all  parts  of  the  foot,  and  how  one  or  many  parts 
may  suffer  if  the  structure  or  function  of  one  be  defective. 

There  is  one  more  movement  of  the  hoof  which  is 
possible  and  which  must  be  referred  to,  as  it  has  been 
made  the  basis  of  a  grave  error  in  shoeing.  I  have  said 
the  back  part  of  the  foot  is  elastic  and  yielding.  If  you 
examine  a  shoe,  so  applied  to  a  foot  that  an  inch  or  more 


FORM  AND  ACTION  OP  THE  FOOT.         29 

of  its  extremity  has  no  contact  with  the  hoof,  you  will 
find  that,  when  weight  is  rested  on  that  foot,  the  horn 
yiekls  downwards  and  conies  in  contact  with  the  shoe. 
This  simply  demonstrates  that,  when  there  is  nothing  to 
supj)ort  it,  the  horn  at  the  heels  may  be  forced  down- 
wards. It  is  not  a  normal  action,  and  in  an  nnshod  foot 
cannot  occur  on  a  level  surface.  The  effect  of  this  down- 
ward movement  of  the  heels  is  to  put  a  strain  on  thd 
horn  of  the  quarters.  A  shoe  so  fitted  as  to  permit  this 
evil  is  in  common  use,  and  no  fault  is  more  serious  than 
thus  forcing  an  unnatural  action  upon  the  hoof  at  every 
Btep.  With  unintentional  irony,  this  piece  of  had  work 
has  been  called  "  easing  the  heels." 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  I  would  just  repeat  that 
the  natural  bearing  surface  of  the  horse's  foot  is  tho 
lower  edge  of  the  wall  and  that  portion  of  the  sol© 
immediately  in  union  with  it;  that  the  arch  of  the  sole 
should  not  be  in  contact  with  the  ground;  that  the  frog- 
ought  to  have  a  bearing  on  the  ground,  but  ought  not  to 
be  so  x^rominent  as  to  unduly  share  in  sustaining  weight. 
This  natural  bearing  surface  is  what  we  want  to  utilize 
in  shoeing.  We  put  on  a  shoe  merely  to  prevent  excessive 
wear  of  the  hoof.  If  we  can  protect  the  wall,  the  frog  caa 
take  care  of  itself,  and  we  have  only  so  to  apply  our 
shoe  that  we  do  not  damage  any  useful  structure  or 
interfere  with  any  natural  function. 

Note, — No  person  is  expected  to  learn  the  structure  of  a  foot 
entirely  from  this  description.  He  must  obtain  two  feet  cut  off  at 
the  fetlock  joint.  One  he  should  soak  in  water  till  the  hoof  can  be 
pulled  off.  The  sensitive  foot  is  then  visible  and  the  inside  of  the 
hoof;  with  these  before  him,  the  drawings  and  descriptions  in  this, 
chapter  will  be  of  great  assistance.  The  second  foot  he  should  have 
sawn  vertically  down  the  middle  through  the  point  of  the  toe,  and 
again  across  the  quarters,  so  as  to  show  the  inside  of  the  foot  from 
two  different  points  of  view;  this  will  afford  a  view  of  the  relation, 
of  parts. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Preparation  of  the  Foot. 

The  cheap  wisdom  of  the  amateur  is  often  expressedJ 
in  the  remark  "  the  shoe  should  be  fitted  to  the  foot,  not 
the  foot  to  the  shoe."'     Like  many  other  dogmatic  state-- 
ments,  this  is  only  the  unqualified  assertion  of  half  a. 
truth.     Foot  and  shoe  have  to  be  fitted  to  each  other. 
There  are  very  few  horses  whose  feet  do  not  require  con- 
siderable alteration  before  a  shoe  can  be  properly  fitted 
to  them.     As  a  rule,  when  a  horse  arrives  at  the  forge,, 
the  feet  are  overgrown  and  quite  out  of  proportion.     In 
a  few  cases — as  when  a  pIioo  lias  been  lost  en  a  joumey — 
the  foot  is  worn  or  broken  and  irregularly  deficient  in 
horn.     In  either  instance,  the  farrier  has  to  make  alter- 
ations in  the  hoof  to  obtain  the  best  bearing  surface 
before  he  fits  a  new  shoo.     The  claim  often  made  for 
some  novel  inventions  in  horse  shoes,  "that  they  may  be 
fitted  and  applied  in  the  stable  by  a  groom  or  stable mo.n," 
is  evidence  of  a  sad  misunderstanding  of  the  art  of  horse-  • 
shoeing.      If  shod   feet   always  remained   of   the   same^ 
shape,  replacement  of  shoes  would  be  a  very  easy  matter, , 
but  they  never  do.     The  living  foot  is  coiistan'dy  chang- 
ing, and  therefore  the  man  entrusted  with  fitting  shoes. 
to  it  must  know  what  its  proper  form  should  be.     Whexii 
he  finds  it  disproportionately  overgrown,  he  must  know 
how  much  horn  to  remove — where  to  take  away  and 
where  to  leave  alone.     He  must  not  carry  in  his  head  a , 
theoretical  standard  of  a  perfect  foot,  and  attempt  to. 
reduce  all  feet  to  that  shape.     He  must  make  allowance  ■ 
for  varieties  of  feet,  and  for  many  little  diiJerences  of' 
form  that  present  themselves  in  practice.     He  has,  in 
fact,  to  prepare  the  foot  for  a  shoe,  and  it  is  just  as-- 
important  to  do  this  properly  as  it  is  to  prepare  a  shoe 
for  the  foot.     To  fit  a  shoe  to  a  foot  which  has  not  been 
properly  prepared,  may  be  even  more  injurious  to  the- 
torse  than  "  to  fit  the  foot  to  the  shoe." 

30 


PREPARATION   OF  THE  FOOT. 


31 


The  general  principle  to  be  followed  is — to  remove 
tsuperfluous  horn,  to  obtain  a  good  bearing  surface  for  a 
«hoe,  to  bring  all  parts  of  the  hoof  equally  into  propor- 
Ttion.     A  good  foot  so  prepared,  when  the  horse  is  stand- 


IG.   17. 


ing  on  level  ground,  should  show,  when  looked  at  from 
the  front,  both  sides  of  the  wall  of  equal  height;  the 
transverse  line  of  the  coronet  should  be  parallel  with  the 
-line  of  the  lower  border  of  the  hoof,  and  the  perpendi- 


32  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

cular  line  of  tlie  leg  sliould  cut  those  lines  at  right 
angles.  (Fig.  17.)  When  looked  at  from  the  side,  the- 
height  of  the  heels  and  the  toe  should  be  proportionate. 
When  looked  at  from  behind,  the  frog  should  be  seen 
touching  the  ground.  On  lifting  the  foot,  a  level  bearing, 
surface  wider  than  the  wall  should  be  presented,  extend- 
ing from  heel  to  too  all  round  the  circumference  of  the- 
hoof;  within  this  level  border,  the  sole  should  be  concave, 
strong  and  rough. 

In  Fig.  17  is  shown  the  foot  on  its  ground  surface- 
and  from  the  side.  The  parallel  lines  are  quite  arbit- 
rary, but  assist  in  explaining  how  the  proportion  of  the 
foot  is  to  be  attained.  Both  sides  of  the  foot  are  of  the 
same  height.  The  bearing  surface  just  meets  the  middle 
line.  All  the  lines  at  coronet,  heel  and  toe  are  at  right 
angles  to  the  perpendicular  line.  The  side  view  shows 
the  proportionate  height  of  heel  and  toe  and  the  slope  of 
the  wall  in  front.  Compared  with  Figs.  33  and  33, 
deviations  from  proportion  are  seen. 

These  conditions  are  not  attainable  with  all  feet,  but 
the  prudent  farrier  does  the  best  he  can  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  easy  to  make  tlie  frog  touch  the 
ground  by  over-lowering  the  heels,  but  this  is  only  intro- 
ducing one  evil  in  attempting  to  avoid  another.  Some 
feet  have  naturally  a  long  toe  with  an  excessive  slope  of 
the  front  part  of  the  wall.  To  hide  this  defect,  a  farrier 
may  "stump  up"  the  toe  and  leave  the  heels  too  high, 
but  he  does  so  at  the  expense  of  the  horse's  foot.  Each 
foot  requires  treating  with  full  knowledge  of  the  form 
best  adapted  to  its  natural  formation,  and  most  cajDable 
of  carrying  a  shoe. 

The  Instruments  used  to  prepare  a  foot  for  shoeing 
are  a  rasp,  a  drawing  knife  and  a  toeing  knife. 

The  rasp  is  the  most  indispensable.  It  should  be- 
sixteen  inches  long,  proportionately  broad,  and  one  part 
of  it  should  be  a  file-surface.  The  shorter,  narrow  rasps 
do  not  afford  all  the  advantages  a  farrier  should  possess 
to  enable  him  to  do  the  best  work.  To  strike  an  even, 
all-round  level  bearing  surface   on  a  hoof,   a    farrier- 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  FOOT.  33 

requires  a  large  rasp,  just  as  a  joiner  must  have  a  large 
plane  to  produce  a  level-surface  on  wood.  Harm,  may 
be  done  by  the  careless  use  of  a  rasp,  and  a  bearing- 
surface  spoiled  by  the  over-reduction  of  horn  at  one 
place.  This  fault  may  be  aggravated  by  attempts  to 
mend  it,  if  such  attempt  take  the  form  of  further  reduc- 
tion of  the  whole  hoof  on  a  foot  where  horn  is  deficient. 

The  drawing  knife  is  a  comparatively  modern  instru- 
ment, which  replaced  a  tool  called  the  buttress.  A  draw- 
ing knife  is  formed  with  great  skill  for  the  purpose  of 
paring  out  the  concave  sole  of  the  hoof,  and  has  done 
infinite  harm.  In  the  days  which  have  now  almost 
passed  away,  when  it  was  thought  the  proper  thing  to 
make  the  hoof  look  clean,  smooth  and  pretty,  the  draw- 
ing knife  was  the  chief  instrument  in  the  j^reparation  of 
the  foot,  Now,  when  nearly  all  men  know  that  the 
stronger  the  sole  and  frog  of  the  foot  can  be  preserved, 
the  better  for  the  horse,  this  knife  is  less  used — and  the 
less  the  better.  The  doorman,  preparing  a  foot  for  the 
fireman  to  fit  a  shoe  to,  should  not  use  a  knife  at  all. 
The  man  who  fits  the  shoe  requires  a  knife  to  remove 
occasional  little  prominences  of  horn  which  are  liable  to 
cause  uneven  pressures  or  which  are  in  the  way  of  a 
properly  fitted  shoe — as,  for  instance,  the  edge  of  the 
wall  to  make  way  for  a  clip,  or  the  angle  of  sole  at  the 
heel  to  prevent  uneven  pressure  by  the  shoe. 

The  toeing  knife  usually  consists  of  about  a  foot  of 
an  old  sword-blade.  This  knife  is  held  and  guided  by 
one  hand  of  the  farrier,  whilst  witli  the  other  it  is  driven 
through  overgrown  horn  by  the  hammer.  Skilfully 
used,  it  is  unobjectionable,  and  for  the  large,  strong 
hoof  of  heavy  draught  horses,  it  saves  a  great  deal  of 
time  and  labor.  For  the  lighter  class  of  horses  it  is 
unecessary,  and  for  weak  feet  with  a  thin  horn  covering 
it  is  dangerous. 

The  toeing  knife  cannot  leave  a  finished  level  bear- 
ing surface,  and  its  work  has  to  be  completed  by  a  few 
strokes  of  the  rasp.  A  farrier  should,  therefore,  never 
attempt  to  remove  all  the  superfluous  horn  with  the 
knife;  he  should  leave  some  for  the  rasp,  so  that  in  pro- 


34 


THE  ART   CF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


diicing  the  final  level  surface,  no  encroachment  upon  the 
necessary  thickness  of  covering  horn  need  be  made. 

The  OvEFiGROWN  Foot,  such  as  we  find  on  a  healthy 
horse  that  has  retained  a  set  of  shoes  for  some  weeks,  or 
that  has  been  without  shoes  on  a  surface  not  hard  enough 
to  cause  sufficient  wear,  is  quite  unfitted  to  receive  a 
shoo.     It  must  be  reduced  to  j)i"oportions.     In  Fig.  18, 


Fig.  18. 

I  have  attempted  to  show  diagrammatically  a  side  view 
of  an  overgrown  hoof.  The  dotted  lines  at  the  base 
shoAV  two  effects  of  lowering  one  part  more  than  another, 
although  both  attain  a  level  surface.  In  Fig.  21,  we  see 
the  result  of  over-lowering  the  heels,  and  in  Fig.  30,  of 
leaving  them  too  high.  It  may  also  be  noticed  that 
these  conditions  affect  other  parts  of  the  foot;  in  fact,  not 
only  otiier  parts,  but  the  whole  foot,  and  even  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  foot  to  the  leg.  If  we  compare  the 
proportionate  foot.  Fig.  19,  with  the  diagram  Fig.  21,  it 
will  be  seen  that  by  over-lowering  the  heels,  the  slope  of 
the  front  of  the  foot  is  increased,  that  the  bearing  sur- 
face from  heel  to  toe  is  slightly  increased  in  length,  and 
that  if  the  dotted  perpendicular  line  be  accepted  as 
showing  the  direction  through  which  the  weight  of  the 
body  passes,  lowering  the  heels  tends  to  put  an  increased 
proportion  of  weight  on  the  back  parts  of  the  foot.     If 


PREPARATION  OF  THE   HOOF,  35 

"^e  compare  Fig.  19  with  Fig.  20,  we  see  the  effect  of 
leaving  the  heels  too  high.  The  bearing  surface  from 
heel  to  toe  is  shortened,  the  slope  of  the  wall  at  the  toe 
is  made  less,  and  more  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  front 
parts  of  the  foot. 

Now,  these  alterations  in  both  cases  affect  not  only 
the  form  of  the  foot,  but  its  relative  position  to  the  leg, 
and  as  the  bones  of  the  limb  above  are  a  series  of  levers 
connected  by  muscles  and  ligaments  so  placed  as  to  be 
most  efficient  for  movement,  it  is  evident  that  alterations 
of  the  foot  must  affect  the  action  of  the  limb.  (Compare 
Figs.  19,  20  and  21.)  In  the  unshod  horse  roaming 
about,  there  is  a  natural  automatic  return  to  proper  rela- 
tive position  whenever  it  has  been  temporarily  upset. 
A  long  toe  is  worn  down  and  high  heels  are  reduced  to 
their  proper  level  by  friction.  Not  so  a  foot  protected 
l)y  an  iron  shoe.  Wear  is  stopped,  and  a  disproportion- 
ate hoof  becomes  more  and  more  disproportionate.  Tem- 
porary alterations  of  the  position  of  the  foot  do  little 
}!.arm,  because  they  are  permitted,  within  a  margin,  by 
the  movement  of  joints  and  by  the  elasticity  of  muscles. 
When,  however,  an  alteration  of  position  is  continued 
for  many  weeks,  it  tends  to  become  permanently  fixed, 
and  may  thus  do  a  great  deal  of  harm,  which  is  not 
traced  to  its  real  cause,  because  the  effect  is  slow  and 
gradual.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  remember  that 
the  proportion  of  the  hoof  is  to  be  maintained,  not  only 
because  it  is  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  foot,  but 
because  it  affects  the  action  of  the  whole  limb.  Too 
long  a  toe  may  cause  a  horse  to  stumble,  and  it  must 
always  increase  the  strain  on  the  back  tendons  during 
progression.  Heels  too  high  prevent  the  frog  from  tak- 
ing its  proper  bearing  on  the  ground,  and  thus  cause  a 
loss  of  function  in  the  back  parts  of  the  foot.  An  exces- 
sively high  heel  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  knee  for- 
ward and  to  straighten  the  pastern.     . 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rule 
to  guide  a  farrier  in  maintaining  the  proportions  of 
heel  and  toe,  when  reducing  an  overgrown  hoof  to 
proper  form.     Feet  differ  much  in  their  natural  forma- 


36 


THE  ART  OF    HORSE-SHOEING. 


Fig.  19.— a  proportionate  Hoof. 


Fig.  20.— a  disproportionate  Hoof— heels  too  liigli. 


Fig.  21.— a  disproportionate  Hoof— heels  too  low. 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   FOOT. 


37 


tion;  some  are  high-heeled  and  some  low,  some  are 
straight  in  front,  some  very  much  sloped,  some  are 
narrow  and  upright,  others  round  and  spreading.  In 
Fig.  22,  the  heels  are  too  high,  and  the  bearing  surface 


FiG„  22.— Heels  high— under  surface  and  side  view. 

does  not  reach  the  transverse  line  at  the  heels.  The  side 
view  shows  the  excessive  height  of  heels,  and  the  slope 
of  the  wall  in  front  too  upright.  Great  assistance  is 
afforded  the  farrier  in  judging  whether  he  should  remove 
more  horn  from  heel  or  toe  by  the  appearance  of  the 


-•:38 


THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


tinder  surface  of  the  foot.  When  the  heels  are  much 
above  the  level  of  the  frog  there  is  an  indication  for 
their  lowering.  When  the  wall  and  bars  are  about  flush 
with  the  angle  of  sole  between  them,  there  is,  as  a  rule, 
no  more  horn  to  spare  at  that  part.     The  length  of  the 


Fig.  33.— Heels  low— toe  long. 


toe  may  be  usefully  gauged  by  the  condition  of  the  j  unc- 
tion between  wall  and  sole.  When  the  sole  is  sound  and 
strong,  all  the  wall  above  its  level — wall  unsupported  by 
■sole  and  showing  on  its  inner  aspect  marks  of  the  horny 


PREPARATION  OF   THE  FOOT. 


3& 


laminsB — may  "be  rasped  down  so  that  a  firm  bearing^ 
surface  is  obtained,  consisting  of  wall  and  sole. 

In  Fig.  23,  tbe  bearing  surface  at  the  heels  is  below 
the  line  marking  a  proportionate  foot.  The  toe  is  too 
long  and  projects  beyond  the  transverse  toe  line.  The 
side  view  shows  the  low  heel  and  the  corresponding 
excess  in  the  slope  of  the  wall  in  front.  The  lower 
transverse  line  in  each  figure  does  not  represent  the 
ground,  but  is  added  to  make  clear  the  height  of  heels 
and  length  of  toe. 

Important  as  it  is  to  maintain  the  relative  propor- 
tions between  the  front  and  back  parts  of  the  foot,  it  is 
perhaps  even  more  important  to  preserve  the  balance 
between  the  two  sides  of  a  foot.  Both  sides  must  be  left 
of  equal  height.  If  one  side  be  higher  than  the  other,  a 
disproportionate  amount  of  weight  is  thrown  on  the 
lower  side,  and  more  or  less  strain  is  put  upon  the  liga- 
ments of  the  ioint  above.     In  the  Figs.  24,  one  limb  is 


I 


Level  foot. 


Fig.  24. 


I 

One  side  too  high. 


shown  with  both  sides  of  the  hoof  even,  and  the  straight 
line  of  the  limb  cuts  squarely  across  the  transverse  line 
of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  foot.  In  the  other  limb, 
one  side  of  the  hoof  is  too  high,  and,  in  the  preparation 
for  shoeing,  only  that  side  will  require  attention. 

Through  constant  neglect  of  this  point,  some  feet 
become  more  or  less  permanently  twisted — and  the  twist 
occurs  at  the  coronet.  The  ground  surface  of  a  foot  or 
a  shoe  always  tends  to  remain  at  right  angles  to  the 


40 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


direction  of  tlie  limb,  and  when  tlie  sides  of  a  hoof  are 
allowed  to  remain  of  unequal  height,  the  higher  side 
presses  the  soft  tissues  of  the  coronet  upwards.  As  the 
hoof  grows  from  the  coronet,  the  side  thus  increased  in. 
height  is  not  so  noticeably  uneven  at  the  lower  border  of 
the  wall  as  at  its  upper,  and  it  cannot  be  restored  to  its 
proper  form,  except  by  months  of  careful  attention  and 
slight  over-lowering  at  each  shoeing.  The  diagrams 
(Figs.  25  and  26)  represent  vertical  sections  through  a 
foot  from  side  to  side.  One  shows  the  wall  uneven  at 
the  base,  the  other  shows  it  uneven  at  the  coronet. 


Fig.  25.— Uneven  at  Ground  Surface. 


Fig.  26.— Uneven  at  Coronet. 


Pecularities  in  the  formation  of  a  limb  sometimes 
cause  an  apparent  error  in  the  relative  position  of  the 
foot.  Thus  we  have  horses  that  turn  their  toes  in,  and 
those  that  turn  their  toes  out.  The  cause  of  this  twist 
takes  place  at  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  when  the  toes  turn  out,  the  elbow  turns  in, 
and  vice  versa.  The  farrier  can  do  no  good  to  this  forma- 
tion, and  attempts  to  alter  it  or  disguise  it  by  devices  in 
shoeing  are  only  injurious  to  the  foot, — little  deceptions 
worthy  of  a  horse-coper. 


PREPARATION   OP  THE  FOOT. 


41 


A  Good  Bearing  Surface  is  the  primary  object 
aimed  at  in  preparing  the  foot  for  a  shoe.  The  relative 
position  of  the  limb  to  the  foot  and  the  proper  propor- 
tions of  every  part  of  the  foot  are  matters  to  be  borne  in 
mind  whilst  the  farrier  is  directly  forming  the  bearing 
surface  for  a  shoe.  A  good  bearing  surface  must  be 
even,  level,  on  sound  horn,  and  as  wide  as  can  be 
obtained,  to  give  stability  to  the  shoe.  It  should  not  be 
limited  to  the  wall.  If,  without  over-reduction,  the  uso 
of  the  rasp  leaves  a  firm  portion  of  the  sole  as  a  level 
surface  continuous  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall,  the 
best  of  bearing  surfaces  is  obtained.     (Fig.  27.)    The 


Fig,  27.— a  proportionate  Foot  witli  a  good  bearing  Surface. 

bearing  surface  should  be  level  from  heel  to  toe,  and  no 
part  of  it  can  be  singled  out  either  as  unfit  to  bear  weight 
or  as  specially  capable  of  enduring  undue  pressure.  No 
broken  or  diseased  horn  should  be  nsed  as  bearing  sur- 
face for  a  shoe.  The  broken  horn  should  be  removed 
and  the  diseased  horn  must,  if  not  entirely  removed, 
have  so  much  of  its  border  cut  or  rasped  off  as  will  pre- 
vent contact  with  a  shoe. 

After  forming  a  level  bearing  surface  with  the  rasp, 
the  sharp  outer  border  of  the  wall  is  lightly  removed 
with  the  file,  so  as  to  prevent  splitting  of  the  horn.     Tha 


43  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

outer  surface  of  the  wall  should  not  be  rasped,  for  it> 
affords  protection  to  the  deeper  layer  of  horn.  The- 
harder  the  outer  layer  of  horn  is  kept,  the  tougher  and 
firmer  is  the  whole  thickness. 

The  Sole  and  Frog  require  very  little  attention. 
No  sensible  farrier  now  puts  himself  to  the  unnessary 
trouble  of  cutting  away  horn  that  is  wanted  for  protec- 
tion. It  was  not  the  practical  farrier  that  introduced 
the  stupid  "  paring  and  cutting  "  that  ruined  horses'  feet 
for  nearly  a  century.  It  was  the  theorists,  who  taught 
expansion  of  the  wall  and  descent  of  the  sole  as  primary 
necessities  in  the  function  of  a  foot,  who  must  be  credited 
with  all  the  evils  resulting  from  robbing  the  sole  and 
frog  of  horn.  V/hen  a  horse  is  shod  with  an  iron  shoe, 
the  wall  cannot  wear,  and  therefore  it  has  to  be  artifi- 
cially reduced  at  each  shoeing.  But  the  shoe  does  not- 
interfere  with  the  wear  of  a  frog,  a,nd  the  farrier  may 
safely  leave  that  organ  entirely  to  take  care  of  itself. 
To  some  extent,  the  shoe  does  interfere  with  the  natural 
wear  of  the  sole,  and,  therefore,  any  flakes  of  horn  which 
have  been  prevented  by  the  shoe  from  detaching  them- 
selves from  the  sole  may  be  removed.  The  best  way  to 
remove  these  is  with  the  buffer.  "The  sole  should  not  be 
pared  out.  I  mean  not  only  that  the  horn  should  be  left 
strong,  it  should  not  be  pared  with  a  drawing  knife, 
even  if  only  a  harmless  surface  layer  be  removed.  The 
effect  of  leaving  the  sole  of  a  shod  foot  with  a  smooth, 
level,  pared  surface  is  to  stop  its  natural  method  of 
throwing  off  more  or  less  broken  flakes,  and  to  cause  it 
to  retain  that  which  is  half  loose  until  it  is  removed  in 
one  great  cake. 

A  portion  of  the  sole  that  requires  a  little  special 
care  in  preparing  for  shoeing  is  the  angle  between  the 
wall  and  the  bars — the  well-known  seat  of  "  corn."  This 
must  not  be  left  so  as  to  come  in  contact  with  the  shoe. 
It  is  not  to  be  "  scooped  ' '  out,  but  it  shoiild  be  reduced 
distinctly  below  the  level  of  the  wall,  so  that  when  th& 
shoe  has  been  in  position  for  a  week  or  two,  there  is  still 
no  contact  between  the  horn  of  the  soles  and  the  iron  at.. 
that  point. 


PREPARATION   OF   THE    FOOT. 


43 


Level  or  Adjusted  Surface?  The  bearing  surface 
of  a  hoof  mast,  of  course,  be  exactly  adapted  to  the  sur- 
face of  shoe  intended  to  be  applied.  Presuming  that  the 
best  surface  for  a  shoe  is  one  level  from  toe  to  heel,  I 
have  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  a  level  bearing  sur- 
face on  ^die  foot.  There  are,  however,  exceptional  cases 
in  which  a  level  shoe  is  not  used,  and  then  we  must  alter 
the  foot  accordingly.  ■  Horses  that  wear  the  toe  of  a  shoe 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  iron  may  bo  bene- 
ficially shod  with  a  shoo  turned  up  at  the  toe.  To  fit 
such  a  shoe  the  hoof  surface  must  not  be  made  level;  it 
must  be  rasped  away  at  the  toe  and  rounded  off  to  follow 
the  line  of  the  shoe.     In  the  three  diagrams  (Fig.  28)  is 


Fto.  28.— Three  forms  of  bearing  Surface. 


shown — (a)  side  view  of  a  foot  prepared  to  suit  the 
turned-up  shoe  at  the  toe,  (6)  a  level  line  to  lit  a  level 
shoe,  and  (c)  a  form  often  adopted  on  the  Continent,  to 
suit  a  shoo  fitted  with  a  slight  curve  throughout.  This 
adjusted  shoe  is  designed  to  imitate  the  shape  of  the 
worn  surface  of  an  old  shoe,  or  to  some  extent  the  worn 
surface  of  an  unshod  foot.  Every  farrier  knows  hoAV 
many  horses  go  better  after  a  level  shoe  has  been  worn 
a  few  days  than  when  first  applied,  and  it  is  argued, 
with  reason,  that  the  greater  ease  is  due  to  the  shoe 
being  worn,  to  the  form  offering  least  resistance  to  the 
movement  of  the  foot  in  locomotion.     I  have  nothing  to 


44 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


say  against  tliis  form  of  shoe  and  the  necessary  form  of 
foot  surface  for  it,  except  that  it  is  more  difficult  to 
make  than  the  ordinary  level  one.  When  adopted,  the 
curve  of  the  foot  should  not  be  obtained  by  over-lower- 
ing the  toe  and  heels,  but  by  leaving  the  quarters  higher. 

Faults  to  be  Avoided. 

Fig.  29  shows  a  hoof  in  which  shortening  of  the  toe 
has  been  effected  not  by  reducing  the  ground  surface  of 
the  wall,  but  by  rasping  away  the  wall  in  front  of  the 
toe.  This  should  not  be  done  with  any  good  foot,  but  it 
may  be  adopted  with  feet  having  an  unnaturally  long 
toe  and  no  superfluous  horn  on  the  under  surface.  A 
"  stumped-up  "  toe  is  very  ugly,  and  it  weakens  the  hoof 
in  front. 


Fig.  29.— a  " stumped-np  "  toe. 

Uneven  Bearing  Surfaces  are  easily  produced  by 
a  careless  use  of  the  rasp.  One  side  of  the  wall  may  be 
made  lower  than  the  other,  one  heel  may  be  reduced 
more  than  the  rest  of  the  foot,  or  one  side  of  the  toe  may 
be  unevenly  reduced.  In  Fig.  30,  the  foot  presents  an 
uneven  surface  which  not  uncommonly  results  from 
careless  work.  The  parts  over-reduced  are  those  most 
easily  reached  with  a  rasp.  The  near  foot  suffers  at  tlio 
outside  heel  and  inside  toe.  A  left  handed  farrier 
would  injure  the  feet  in  just  the  opposite  positions. 

Another  fault  results  from  holding  the  rasp  untruly. 
If  we  suppose  the  inside  heel  of  the  near  foot  to  be  under 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   FOOT. 


45 


preparation,  and  tlie  farrier  inclines  Ms  rasj)  too  mucli 
inwards,  lie  leaves  the  wall  at  the  heel  lower  than  tho 
sole  within  it.  On  such  a  foot,  a  level  shoe  rests  upon 
the  sole  instead  of  upon  the  wall,  and  a  bruised  heel 
soon  follows. 


Fig.  30.— Uneven  Surface,  over-lowsred  at  Heel  and  Toe. 

Paring  Avtay  the  Sole  to  produce  a  deep,  con- 
cave appearance  has  another  evil  effect  in  addition  to 
that  before  })ointed  out.  It  removes  the  horn  just  within 
the  border  of  the  wall,  taking  away  the  natural  support, 
and  leaving  as  bearing  surface  for  a  shoe  a  narrow  ridge 
instead  of  a  strong  fiat  surface.  Fig.  31  shows  this  fault, 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  ridge  may  be  left 
as  thin  as  a  knife  edge.  Such  a  ridge  cannot  sustain  the 
weight  of  the  horse,  and  when  it  yields,  the  shoe  also 
yields,  the  clenches  are  raised  and  the  shoe  becomes  loose. 

Excessive  Rasping  of  Wall. — The  best  farriers — 
those  most  proud  of  their  work — have  a  great  temptation 
to  use  a  rasp  too  freely  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  wall. 
The  hoof  gets  rough,  or  it  may  be  ridged,  its  appearance 
is  improved  by  being  made  smooth,  and  it  is  only  human 
to  turn  out  work  which  is  clean  and  neat.  Owners  and 
grooms  are  rather  inclined  to  forget  the  claims  of  the 
liorse  when  judging  shoeing,  and  the  result  is  that  some 


46 


THE  ART   OP   HORSE-SHOEING. 


iiarm  is  doiio  by  exce.ssiv3  raspiiifc.  A  strong  foot  doesf. 
not  suffer  much,  but  its  strongth  is  preserved  by  leaving 
the  hard  outer  surface  intact.  Rasping  off  an  outer 
layer  of  horn  favors  evaporation  and  hardening  of  th& 
underneath  layer,  and  the  toughness  so  desirable  is  to-- 
some    degree    replaced    by    hardness    and    brittleness. 


Fig.  31.— a  Pared-out  Sole,  bars  destroyed  and  bearing  surface 
for  shoe  reduced  to  a  narrow  ridge. 

Excessive  rasping  below  the  clenches  is  even  more  injur- 
ious than  rasping  above  them.  The  wall,  between  its 
bearing  surface  and  the  clenches,  has  to  withstand  the 
contact  of  the  shoe  and  the  perforation  by  nails.  It 
should  be  the  toughest  and  strongest  part,  and,  therefore, 
should  not  be  rasped  more  than  is  necessary  to  lay  down 
the  clenches  and  finish  the  fitting.  Unfortunately,  the 
neatest  work  is  done  by  fitting  a  shoe  ' '  close ' '  and  then 
rasping  off  any  protruding  horn.  This  is  bad  for  the 
foot,  as  it  weakens  the  wall  and  spoils  the  bearing  sur- 
face at  each  shoeing.  The  worst  offenders  in  this  direc- 
tion are  dealers,  who  sacrifico  everything  to  appearances 
and  insist  upon  shoeing  being  neat  at  all  hazards. 

Opening  the  Heels  is  one  of  the  gravest  faults  a 
farrier  can  be  guilty  of.  It  consists  in  cutting  away  the^ 
extremity  of  the  wall  at  the  heel  and  generally  a  slice  off; 


PREPARATION   OF  THE  FOOT.  "     47 

the  side  of  tlie  frog  at  the  same  time.  The  effect  is  ta 
produce  an  appearance  of  width  at  the  back  of  the  foot — 
to  make  what  is  called  "a  fine,  open  foot."  Fig.  31 
shows  a  foot  which  has  been  injured  in  this  way.  The 
wedge  shaped  opening  which  results  has  many  objec- 
tions. It  breaks  the  continuit}'-  of  structures  at  the  heels, 
it  removes  horn  unnecessarily,  it  weakens  the  foot,  and, 
when  the  wall  is  interfered  with,  it  shortens  the  bearing 
surface  for  a  shoe.  The  bearing  surface  at  the  back  of 
the  foot  is  perha,ps  the  most  important  of  any  afforded 
by  the  wall.  The  longer  the  bearing  surface  is  at  the 
heels,  the  more  the  base  for  sustaining  weight  is  brought 
under  tho  leg,  and  the  better  the  position  for  supporting 
the  body.  All  removal  of  horn  that  shortens  this  surface 
is  injurious. 

Oyer-Redijction  OF  Hoof  is  always  a  fault.  It  is 
true,  a  carefully  fitted  shoe  on  a  foot  so  treated  may  do  no 
harm  for  a  time.  Too  much  horn  should  be  left  rather 
than  too  little.  A  strong  covering  of  horn  is  a  protection 
against  many  mistakes  in  the  fitting  of  form  of  a  shoe 
applied  to  a  foot.  So  long  as  a  hoof  is  everyv>rhere  strong 
enough  to  sustain  pressure  and  afford  bearing,  weight  is 
•evenly  distributed  throughout  the  whole  foot.  When 
the  horn  is  thin,  it  yields  to  any  uneven  pressure,  and 
damage  is  done  to  the  foot,  even  if  immediate  lameness 
is  not  induced. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Foals  and  Unshod  Feet. 

Injury  to  horses  may  result  from  want  of  attention 
to  tlieir  unshod  feet.  At  first  sight,  this  statement 
would  appear  to  suggest  that  the  hoof,  in  a  natural  con- 
dition, was  unable  to  take  care  of  itself.  This  is  not  so. 
When  horses  without  shoes  are  really  in  a  state  of 
nature  they  have  extensive  pasture  grounds  and  un- 
limited freedom  of  motion.  Growth  and  wear  of  hoof  are- 
balanced,  and  so  the  foot  is  preserved  in  a  proportionate 
shape.  Over- wear  of  horn  causes  the  horse  to  reat  his 
tender  foot,  and  growth  soon  brings  about  a  balance. 
Over-growth  cannot  take  place  so  long  as  constant  wear 
accompanies  the  free  movement  of  the  animal. 

The  injury  referred  to  is  due  to  excessive  growth  of 
horn,  which  takes  place  on  the  feet  of  horaos  that  ar& 
confined  in  stables  or  small  paddocks  where  natural  use 
is  insuiScient  to  preserve  the  balance  between  growth 
and  wear.  Excessive  growth  of  horn  causes  dispropor- 
tion in  the  form  of  a  foot,  and  ill-formed  feet  soon  react 
injuriously  upon  the  limb.  All  horses'  feet,  as  they  grow, 
become  long  at  the  toe,  and  thus  the  bearing  surface 
upon  which  the  leg  should  firmly  rest,  is  carried  too 
far  forward  from  the  vertical  lino  of  the  limb.  This 
injuriously  affects  the  joints  and  tendons  of  the  leg. 
Over-grown  feet  are  always  too  high  at  the  heels,  and 
thus  the  frog  is  removed  from  its  proper  bearing  on  the 
ground,  with  the  consequence  that  it  wastes,  loses  its 
function  and  permits  contraction  of  the  hoof.  Excessive 
growth  of  hoof  may  also  leave  one  side  of  the  wall 
higher  than  the  other,  a  condition  which,  especially  in 
young  horses,  may  cause  a  more  or  less  permanent 
twisting  of  the  foot  on  the  leg. 

The  reaction  of  the  limb  to  distorted  forms  of  hoof 
and  the  injury  to  internal  parts  of  the  foot-  from  dispro- 
portionate growth  of  hoof  are  more  serious  in  young- 

43 


FOALS   AND   UNSHOD   FEET.  49 

animals  than  in  those  of  maturer  growth.  Tho  tissues 
are  more  plastic,  more  easily  moulded  to  external  condi- 
tions and  more  likely  to  sulier  permanently  from  inter- 
ference with  their  functions,  than  are  the  tissues  of 
animals  in  which  development  has  ceased.  Hence  it  is 
very  necessary  to  see  that  tho  feet  of  colts,  even  of  foals, 
are  not  permitted  to  long  remain  in  a  disproportionate 
form. 

Tho  necessary  interference  is  very  slight.  No  cutting 
or  paring  of  frog  or  sole  is  required.  All  that  is  wanted 
is  a  judicious  use  of  the  rasp  to  the  lower  border  of  the 
wall,  so  that  heels  are  not  allowed  to  lift  the  frog  from 
contact  with  the  ground;  that  the  toe  is  not  of  such 
abnormal  length  as  to  strain  the  joints  and  tendons  of 
the  leg;  and  that  both  sides  of  the  hoof  are  maintained 
of  an  equal  height. 

Stud  horses,  from  want  of  exercise  and  excessive 
feeding,  are  predisposed  to  disease  of  the  feet.  Laminitis 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  lameness  and  even  of  death  in 
stallions  and  in  mares  at  foaling  time.  It  would  be 
wrong  to  say.  that  this  disease  is  directly  due  to  neglected, 
disproiDortionate  feet,  but  in  nearly  every  case  these 
conditions  accompany  the  disease,  and,  according  to  their 
extent,  aggravate  it.  I  feel  certain  that  more  attention 
to  the  preservation  of  a  natural  form  of  hoof  would 
modify  the  violence  of  many  cases,  even  if  it  did  not 
prevent  their  origin. 

In  all  horses  which  are  prevented  by  their  surround- 
ings from  wearing  down  the  hoof  naturally,  especially 
in  young,  growing  animals,  a  little  periodic  attention  to 
the  hoof  would  ensure  better  conformation  and  more 
healthy  feet  and  limbs.  As  a  rule,  it  is  the  more  expen- 
sive class  of  horse  that  is  bred  and  reared  in  stables  or 
in  confined  pastures  where  overgrowth  produces  mis- 
chief. The  greater  then  tho  economy  of  intelligent  care 
of  the  foot  in  such  conditions.  Were  it  possible  to 
always  trace  effects  to  their  causes,  it  would  often  be 
found  that  round  joints,  straight  pasterns  and  bent  knees 
directly  resulted  from  neglect  of  the  feet  in  unshod 
young  horses. 


CHAPTER   V. 
The  Form  and  Manufacture  of  Shoes. 

Horse-shoes  are  made  either  by  hand  or  machinery. 
In  this  country  most  are  hand-made — the  front  shoes 
from  new  bar-iron,  and  the  hind  from  old  siioes  welded 
together  and  drawn  out  under  heavy  hammers.  Probably 
no  method  of  working  iron  gives  such  good  results  as 
this  in  producing  a  hard,  tough  shoe  that  will  withstand 
vrear.  The  custom  of  the  trade  is  to  keep  a  stock  of 
shoes  suitable  for  all  the  regular  customers.  From  this 
stock  are  selected  sizes  and  forms,  which  are  then  specially 
fitted  for  each  foot. 

Various  materials  have  been  tried  in  the  production 
of  horse -shoes.  Leather,  compressed  and  hardened,  has 
been  tried,  and  failed.  Vulcanite  was  experimented  with 
unsuccessfully.  Paper,  or  more  correctly,  a  compressed 
papier  mdche,  has  also  been  tested,  but  proved  "unsatisfac- 
tory. Steel  has  been  pretty  largely  tried  in  many 
different  forms,  but  it  is  dihicult  to  temper.  As  nearly 
all  shoes  are  applied  immediatoiy  after  being  fitted,  they 
have  to  be  rapidly  cooled  in  vrater,  and  steel  treated  in 
this  way  is  raad.e  so  hard  that,  if  the  shoes  do  not  break, 
the;f  are  dangerously  slippery  on  most  paved  streets.  As 
a  material  for  shoes  good  malleable  iron  has  no  equal. 
It  can  be  obtained  in  bars  of  various  sizes  to  suit  any 
form  and  weight  of  shoe,  and  tlie  old  shoes  made  from  it 
may  be  worked  up  over  and  over  again. 

The  chief  objects  to  be  attained  in  any  particular 
pattern  or  form  of  shoe  are— that  it  be  light,  easily  and 
safely  retained  by  a  few  nails,  capable  of  wearing  three 
weeks  or  a  month,  and  that  it  afford  good  foot-hold  to 
the  horse.  All  sJioes  should  be  soundly  worked  and  free 
from  flaws. 

The  first  shoes  were  doubtless  appl led  solely  to  protect 
the  foot  from  wear.     The  simplest  arrangement  would 

then  be  either  a  thin  plate  of  iron  covering  the  ground 

5a 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES.      51 

surface  of  the  foot,  or  a  narrow  rim  fixed  merely  round 
the  lower  borJer  of  the  wall.  Experience  teaches  that 
these  primitive  forms  can  be  mouified  with  advantage, 
and  that  certain  patterns  are  specially  adapted  to  our 
artificial  conditions.  A  good  workman  requires  no 
directions  as  to  how  he  should  work,  and  it  is  doubtful 
if  a  bad  one  would  be  benefited  by  any  written  rules; 
but  it  should  be  noted  that  a  well-made  shoe  may  be  bad 
for  a  horse's  foot,  whilst  a  very  rough,  badly-made  one 
may,  when  properly  fitted,  be  a  useful  article.  To  make 
and  apply  horse-shoes  a  man  must  be  more  than  a  clever 
worker  in  iron — he  must  be  a  farrier,  and  that  necessitates 
£b  knowledge  of  the  horse's  foot  and  the  form  of  shoe  best 
adapted  to  its  wants. 

AvEioiiT  OF  Shoes. — The  lighter  a  shoe,  can  be  made 
the  better.  Weight  is  a  disadvantage  we  are  obliged  to 
put  up  with  to  obtain  wear,  for  the  frequent  removal  of 
shoes  is  only  a  little  less  injurious  to  the  hoof  than 
working  with  none  at  all.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that 
the  heaviest  shoe  gives  the  most  wear;  on  the  contrary,  a 
heavy  shoe  may  have  the  iron  so  distributed  as  to  increase, 
the  rapidity  of  wear,  and  a  shoe  of  half  the  weight 
properly  formed  may  last  longer.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  find  worn-out  shoes  still  weighing  more  tha,n  a 
new  shoe  w] deb  will,  on  the  same  horse,  give  p.  longer 
period  of  wear.  When  a  horse  wears  his  shoes  out  very 
rapidly,  the  indication  to  the  farrior  is  not  simply  to 
increase  the  weight,  but  to  see  if  he  can  obtain  more  wear 
by  rJtering  the  form  and  distributing  the  iron  in  a 
diiicrent  w;iy.  A  tired  horse  wears  his  shoes  much  more 
rapidly  than  a  fresh  and  active  one.  Continued  slipi^ing 
wears  away  a  shoe  out  of  adl  proportion  to  the  work  done 
by  a  horse  having  a  firm  foot-hold.  These  tv/o  different 
•conditions  may  be  partially  due  to  the  shoes,  for  a  heavy 
shoe  tires  the  leg,  and  broad  flat  shoes  favour  slipping. 
Some  horses  wear  one  special  part  of  the  shoe  excessively 
— as  a  rule,  either  at  the  toe  or  the  heel — and  this  is  better 
met  by  turning  up  the  worn  part  out  of  the  line  of  wear 
than  by  thickening  it  and  so  increasing  weight.    Besides, 


52  THE  ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

a  heavy  shoe  requires  a  greater  number  or  a  larger  size  of 
nails  to  retain  it  securely  in  position,  and  this  is  a  disad- 
vantage. It  has  often  been  asserted  that  a  horse  "goes 
better  "  in  a  heavy  shoe  than  a  light  one,  and  that  this  is 
due  to  the  heavier  shoe  acting  as  a  protection  to  the 
foot  and  warding  off  concussion.  If  the  term  "  goea 
better  "  meroly  means  that  he  lifts  his  foot  higlier  and 
consequently  bends  his  knee  more,  I  do  not  deny  the 
assertion.  The  reason  of  this  is  not  that  the  horse  feols 
less  concussion  and  therefore  goes  freer.  It  is  an  exag- 
geration of  the  natural  movements,  due  simply  to  the 
horse  with  weight  imposed  on  his  feet  having  to  use  the 
muscles  of  his  arms  more  to  lift  that  "weight.  The  same 
thing  can  be  brought  about  by  tying  bags  of  shot  on  to 
the  hoof,  v/hich  is  done  to  cultivate  "action."  The 
healthy  foot  requires  no  artificial  aids  against  concussion, 
but  when  a  foot  becomes  tender  from  Dad  shoeing  it  may 
sometimes  be  relieved  by  adding  to  the  substance  and 
weight  of  a  shoe. 

The  following  are  about  the  average  weights,  per 
shoe,  of  horses  standing  16  hands  high  : 

Race  Horses , 2  to    4  ounces. 

Ha,cks  and  Hunters .,  15  to  18      " 

Carriage  Horses 20  to  30       " 

Omnibus       "       3  to  3^  pounds. 

Dray  '*       4  to  5 


i( 


Thickness  and  Width  of  Shoes. — To  obtain  the- 
necessary  amount  of  wear  froin  shoes  they  must  be 
increased  either  in  thickness  or  width,  and  it  will  assist 
lis  in  estimating  the  relative  value  of  these  conditions  if 
we  shortly  consider  their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
I  may  say  at  once  that  no  sound  foot  requires  a  wide  shoe 
merely  as  "  cover"  or  protection  for  the  sole.  Defective 
soles  may  sometimes  require  protection,  but  sound  ones 
never,  and  wo  may  therefore  put  aside  entirely  all  claims 
made  for  widt-h  of  shoo  under  pretence  that  it  gives  a 
valuable  protection  to  the  foot.  A  shoe  should  be  as 
wide  as  the  natural  bearing  surface  of  the  foot,  so  that 
it  may  occupy  the  whole  of  the  space  offered  by  nature 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES.      53 

as  useful  for  bearing.  Even  when  it  is  wider  no  harm  is 
done  until  the  width  is  such  as  to  afCord  a  lodgement  for 
stones,  etc. ,  between  the  coucaye  sole  and  the  web  of  the 
shoe. 

A  thick  shoe  raises  the  foot  from  the  ground  and 
thus  removes  the  frog  from  bearing — a  very  decided 
disadvantage.  It  also  requires  the  larger  sizes  of  nails 
to  fill  up  the  deep  nail  holes,  and  very  often  renders  the 
direction  of  the  nail  holes  a  matter  of  some  diiSculty. 

The  width  of  a  shoe  may  beneficially  vary.  It  should 
be  widest  at  the  toe,  to  afford  increased  surface  of  iron 
where  wear  is  greatest.  It  should  be  narrowest  at  the 
heels,  so  as  not  to  infringe  upon  the  frog,  nor  yet  to 
protrude  greatly  beyond  the  level  of  the  wall.  The 
thickness  of  a  shoe  should  not  vary,  unless,  perhaps,  it 
be  reduced  in  the  quarters.  Heel  and  toe  should,  be  of 
the  same  thickness,  so  as  to  preserve  a  level  bearing. 
Excess  of  thickness  at  the  toe  puts  a  strain  on  the  back 
tendons,  whilst  excess  at  the  heels-  tends  to  straighten, 
the  pastern. 

The  Surface  of  Shoes. — There  are  two  surfaces 
of  the  shoe  which  claim  attention,  one  which  is  applied 
to  the  foot,  and  another  which  rests  on  the  ground.  The 
form  of  these  surfaces  may  be  varied  greatly,  but  of 
course  the  foot-surface  presents  much  less  necessity  and 
less  opportunity  for  alterations  than  the  ground-surface. 
The  foot-surface  of  a  shoe  must  be  formed  in  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  the  horse's  foot,  and  no  other 
consideration  should  be  allowed  to  materially  modify  it. 
The  ground-surface  may  be  altered  to  suit  the  tastes  and 
prejudices  of  the  owner  as  well  as  the  requirements  of 
the  horse  and  the  peculiarity  of  roadways. 

The  Foot-Surface. — It  is  quite  obvious  that  the 
surface  of  the  shoe  upon  which  the  hoof  has  to  rest  should 
be  regular  and  even  ;  that  it  should  not  consist  of  hills 
and  holes  or  grooves  and  ridges.  I  should  not  have 
mentioned  such  a  very  evident  matter,  but  that  in  large 
towns,  the  cheaper  and  poorer  classes  of  shoeing  com- 
monly possess  this  very  fault.    When  shoes  are  made- 


^4  THE  ART   OP   HORSE-SHOEING. 

from  thin,  wide,  old  iron  tyres  they  are  "buckled"  on 
one  surface,  and  to  hide  this  the  farrier  puts  that  side  to 
the  foot  so  that  it  is  not  noticed  until  it  causes  damage. 
There  are  three  or  four  forms  of  foot-surface  adopted  by 
farriers,  all  of  which  have  distinctive  features,  a.iid  some 
of  which  have  very  grave  evils.  There  is  the  plain  flat 
surface,  which  is  given  to  all  narrow  shoes,  to  liunting 
shoes,  and  to  .some  heavier  and  wider  shoes.     So  long  as 


Fig.  32.— a  level,  flat  teaiicg-siir face. 

the  sole  is  htalthy  and  arched  this  is  a  very  good  form. 
All  liind  shoes  have  a  flat  foot-surface,  and  most  fore 
shoes  might  have  it  with  advantage.  It  utilizes  tlie  whole 
-of  the  natural  bearing  surface,  and  must  of  necessity 
afford  a  flrmer  basis  for  the  foot  lo  rest  upon  than  a  more 
limited  surface.  The  fore  feet  are  not  so  constantly 
arched  in  the  sole  as  the  hind.  Sometimes  they  are  flat 
and  occasionally  convex.  If  a  shoe  be  intended  for  use  on 
all  feet — on  feet  with  convex  and  flat  soles  as  well  as 
those  properly  formed — a  wide  flat  foot  surface  would 
often  cause  injury  by  pressing  unevenly  upon  the  sole. 
To  avoid  this  injury  in  less  than  five  per  cent,  of  feet, 
and  to  save  the  troiible  of  keeping  in  stock  shoes  of 
different  forms,  the  flat  foot-surface  of  front  shoos  has 
been  replaced  by  a  bevelled  or  ''seated"  surface. 
(Fig.  33.) 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES.      55- 

This  form  is  very  widely  used.  It  consists  of  a  narrow- 
flat  surface  next  the  outer  circumference  of  the  shoe, 
about  equal  in  width  to  the  border  of  the  wall,  and 
within  that,    of  a  bevelled  surface,  sloped  off   so  as  to 


Fio  33.— A  "seated"  bearing-surface. 

avoid  any  pressure  on  a  flat  sole.  This  ' '  seated  "  surface 
is  not  positively  injurious,  but  it  limits  the  bearing  to 
the  wall,  and  neglects  to  utilize  the  additional  bearing 
surface  offered  by  the  border  of  the  sole.  If  shoes  were 
to  be  made  all  alike  no  shoe  is  so  generally  useful  and 
safe  as  one  with  a  foot-surface  of  this  form,  but  it  is 
evident  that  when  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  concave  there  is 
nothing  gained  by  making  half  the  foot-surface  of  the 
shoe  also  concave. 

There  are  two  other  forms  of  foot-surface  on  shoes. 
In  one  the  surface  slopes  gradually  from  the  outer  to  the 
inner  edge  of  the  shoe,  like  the  side  of  a  saucer.  In  the 
other  the  incline  is  reversed  and  runs  from  the  inner  edge 
downwards  to  the  outer.  This  last  form  is  not  often  used, 
and  was  invented  witli  the  object  of  spreading  or  widen- 
ing the  foot  to  which  it  was  attached.  The  inventor 
seemed  to  think  that  contraction  of  a  foot  was  an  active- 
condition  to  be  overcome  by  force,  and  that  expansion 
might  be  properly  oftected  by  a  plan  of  constantly  forcing 
apart  the  two  sides  of  the  foot.     The  usual  result  of 


56 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


wearing  such  a  shoe  is  lameness,  and  it  achieves  no  good 
which  cannot  be  as  well  reached  by  simply  letting  the 
^  alone. 


foou 


Fio.  34. — Foot-surface  sloped  outwards. 

The  foot-surface,  which  inclines  downwards  and 
inwards  like  a  saucer,  acts  in  an  exactly  opposite  way  to 
the  other.     The  Avail  cannot  rest  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 


Fig.  35.~Foot-surface  sloped  inwards. 


i 


shoe,  and  consequently  falls  within  it,  the  effect  being 
that  at  every  ttep  the  horse's  foot  is  compressed  by  tiie 
saucer-shaped  bearing.  This  form  of  surface  (Fig.  35)  is 
frequently  seen,  and  is  at  all  times  bad  and  unnecessary. 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES.      57 

Even  when  making  a  shoe  for  the  most  convex  sole,  it  is 
possible  to  leave  an  outer  hearing  surface,  narrow  but 
level,  which  will  sustain  weight  without  squeezing  the 
foot. 

At  the  heels,  the  foot-surface  of  all  shoes  should  be 
flat — not  seated— so  that  a  firm  bearing  may  be  obtained 
on  the  wall  and  the  extremity  of  the  bar.  No  foot  is 
convex  at  the  heels,  therefore  there  is  no  excuse  for 
losing  any  bearing  surface  by  seating  the  heels  of  a  shoe 
to  avoid  uneven  pressure.  Fig.  36  rather  exaggerates 
the  "unseated"  portion  of  shoe. 


Fig.  36.— Foot-surface  level  at  Heels. 

The  Ground-Surface.— As  I  have  said,  this  may 
vary  indefinitely.  Sometimes  it  is  a  plain,  flat  surface, 
broken  only  by  the  holes  made  for  nails  or  by  the 
"  fullering"  which  affords  not  oiil}''  space  for  the  nails, 
but  some  grip  on  the  ground.  When  a  shoe  is  "  fullered," 
the  groove  made  should  be  deep,  so  as  to  let  the  nail- 
head  well  down,  and  wide,  so  as  to  afford  room  for  giving 
the  nail  a  proper  direction.  If  tlio  fullering  be  con- 
tinued round  the  toe  of  a  shoe  by  a  good  workman,  neat- 
ness is  given,  but  when  a  clip  is  drawn,  the  iron  is  so 
reduced  that  some  wear  is  sacrificed.  If  only  an  inch  at 
the  toe  be  unfullered,  the  solid  iron  affords  more  wear 
Just  where  it  is  wanted. 


58 


THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


The  concave  slioe,  often  described  as  a  hunting-shoe, 
presents  a  very  different  ground-surface  from  that  just 
referred  to.     It  rests  upon  two  ridges  with  the  fullering 


Fio,  37.— Concave  ground-surface. 


between,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  tliese  the  iron  is  sud- 
denly slopea  off.  This  shoe  is  narrow  and  flat  on  the 
foot-surface,  and  is  specially  formed  to  give  a  good  foot- 
hold and  to  be  secure  on  the  hoof. 


Flo.  38.— Double-grooved  ground- surface. 

A  Rodway  shoe  has  two  longitudinal  grooves  and 
three  ridges  on  its  ground-surface.     The  outer  groove 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES.      59 

carries  the  nails,  and  the  inner  groove  lightens  the  shoe 
and  increases  the  foot-hold.  It  is  not  the  number  of 
grooves  or  ridges  that  prevents  slipping;  it  is  the  absence 
of  a  continuous  flat  surface  of  iron,  and  the  existence  of 
irregularities  which  become  filled  up  with  sand  and  grit. 
A  four-grooved  shoe  has  no  more  anti-slipping  j^roper- 
ties  than  a  three-grooved,  and  a  one-grooved  shoe  is  as 
good  as  either,  although  it  cannot  stand  the  same 
amount  of  wear. 

Transverse  ridges  and  notches  have  also  been  tried 
as  ground-surfaces  for  shoes,  but  offer  very  little,  if  any, 
better  grip  than  the  longitudinal  grooves.  Their  great 
disadvantage  is  that  they  cannot  be  mads  deep  enough 
without  weakening  the  shoe,  whilst,  if  shallow,  thej''  ara 
worn  out  before  the  shoe  has  been  long  in  wear. 


Fig.  38. — Ground-surfaces,  notches,  project! ons„  ridges. 

A  Calkin  is  the  name  given  to  the  extremity  of  a 
shoe  when  turned  down  at  the  heels.  Calkins  are  used 
on  most  hind  shoes  and,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  on 
fore  shoes.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  convenient 
and  effective  means  of  giving  good  foot-hold.  This  sup- 
position is  correct  when  a  horse  travels  on  soft  ground 
or  on  streets  so  paved  that  a  space  is  left  between  each 
course  of  stones.  They  are  of  very  little  use  on  asphalt 
or  wood  pavement  and  not  much  more  use  on  roller- 


<30  THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

made  macadam.  With  light,  modern  carriages  and  level 
modern  roads,  calkins  are  quite  unnecessary,  and  better 
means  of  giving  foot-hold  may  be  substitued.  It  is  a 
fact  that  horses,  when  shoes  are  new  and  calkins  prom- 
inent, do  their  work  without  slipping,  and  that  when  the 
calkins  are  worn  down,  the  horse  moves  with  less  con- 
fidence and  security.  This  does  not  prove  that  calkins 
are  necessary.  It  must  be  remembered  that  horses 
possess  a  power  of  adapting  themselves  to  circum5ta,ivces, 
but  having  learned  to  rely  upon  any  artificial  assistance, 
they  are  the  more  helpless,  for  a  time,  on  its  withdrawal. 
Calkins  assist  the  horse  for  a  time,  but  after  the  calkin 
is  worn  down,  the  horse  is  in  a  worse  position  than  if  he 
had  never  become  accustomed  to  its  assistance.  Of 
course,  on  soft  ground,  especially  grass,  calkins  afford  a 
firmer  grip  than  any  other  contrivance.  On  the  other 
hand,  their  constant  use  lifts  the  frog  out  of  bearing  and 
causes  it  to  waste,  thus  spoiling  the  action  of  the  natural 
provision  against  slipping.  Level  shoes  on  the  hind  feet 
promote  sound,  prominent  frogs,  and  give  firm  foothold 
for  all  light  horses.  Even  omnibus  horses,  now  that  the 
vehicles  are  suppplied  with  effective  foot  brakes,  may 
advantageously  be  worked  without  calkins  On  country 
roads,  especially  when  the  district  is  hilly  or  the  load  is 
heavy,  calkins  may  be  requisite,  and  must  then  be  made 
to  do  as  little  harm  as  possible. 

The  wear  of  a  shoe  is  affected  by  the  height  of  a 
calkin.  The  more  the  heel  is  raised  the  greater  the 
amount  of  wear  at  the  toe.  Many  shoes  when  worn  out 
at  the  toe,  show  very  little  effects  of  wear  at  other  parts, 
and  the  question  arises  how  best  to  increase  the  wear  of 
the  shoe  without  increasing  its  weight.  In  Fig.  39,  three 
diagrams  are  presented,  in  which  dotted  lines  show  the 
effect  of  wear.  At  (a)  the  shoe  is  of  even  thickness 
throughout — from  heel  to  toe — and  tUe  line  of  wear 
shows  that  when  the  shoe  is  worn  out  a  great  amount 
of  iron  remains.  At  (&)  the  quarters  of  the  shoo  are 
made  thinner  and  the  toe  is  made  thicker,  so  that  with 
no  increase  of  weight  but  by  a  better  distribution  of  the 
iron,  increased  wear  is  provided  for  at  the  part  where 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES. 


61 


it  is  most  required.  At  (c)  is  sliowii  a  slioe  similar  in 
form  to  tliat  at  (6)  but  differently  fitted.  The  toe  is 
turned  slightly  upwards,  and  the  result  is  that  a  larger 
portion  of  iron  is  brought  into  wear.    In  the  case  of  very 


-(«) 


-  (&) 


^ (0) 

Fig.  39.— The  dotted  lines  show  the  effect  of  wear  and 
its  relation  to  the  shape  of  the  shoe. 

hard- wearing  horses,  that  scrajje  out  the  toe  of  the  ordi- 
nary shoe  in  ten  or  fourteen  days,  this  form  of  fitting 
adds  considerably  to  the  durability  of  the  shoe,  and  so 
preserves  the  foot  from  the  evil  of  too  frequent  removal 
of  shoes,  whilst  avoiding  any  increase  of  weight. 
Without  calkins,  wear  is  more  evenly  distributed,  and 
the  toe  is  not  worn  away  disproportionately  to  the  rest 
of  the  shoe. 


Fig.  40.— Two  calkins — the  low  square  one  preferable. 

A  calkin  throws  the  leg  and  foot  to  some  extent  out 
of  their  proper  position.  A  very  high  calkin  is  not  only 
objectionable,  it  is  unnecessary.  Not  much  prominence 
is  required  to  afford  a  catch  or  stop.  Excessive  height 
is  usually  given  to  meet  wear,  and  this  can  be  obtained 


•equally    well    by 


increasing 


the  width  and    breadth. 


€2  THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

I,  therefore,  recommend  that  when  calkins  are  used,  they 
shoukl  be  h)w,  square  and  broad.  The  further  under  a 
foot  the  calkin  is  placed,  the  greater  is  the  raising  of  the 
heel,  therefore  calkins  should  always  be  accompanied  by 
a  long  shoe.  The  farther  back  a  calkin  be  placed,  the 
less  it  interferes  with  the  natural  position  of  the  foot. 

Calkins  render  a  horse  liable  to  tread  the  opposite 
foot,  and  the  higher  and  sharper  the  calkin,  the  greater 
the  injury  inflicted.  To  avoid  this  injury,  the  inner 
heel  of  a  shoe  frequently  has  no  calkin,  but  is  made  at 
the  same  level  as  the  outer  by  narrowing  and  raising  the 
iron  at  the  heel,  forming  what  is  called  a  wedge  heel. 
This  is  not  an  advisable  form  of  shoe,  as  it  has  on  the 
inner  heel  a  skate  shaped  formation,  most  favorable  to 
slipping,  and  on  the  outer  a  catch — an  arrangement 
tending  to  twist  the  foot  each  time  the  catch  takes  hold 
of  the  ground.  If  calkins  are  used  at  all,  they  should  be 
of  equal  height  and  on  both  heels  of  the  shoe. 

In  Scotland  and  in  the  North  of  England,  heavy 
horses  are  shod,  fore  and  hind,  not  only  with  calkins, 
but  also  with  toe-pieces,  and  the  owners  assert  that  the 
horses  could  not  do  the  work  without  them.  That  horses 
do  similar  work  in  the  South  without  calkins  and  toe- 
pieces  rather  shakes  one's  faith  in  the  assertion,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  nearly  all  paved  streets  in  the 
North  have  a  division  left  between  the  rows  of  stones  in 
"which  the  toe-piece  finds  a  firm  resisting  surface.  I  be- 
lieve also  that  the  average  load  drawn  is  greater  in  the 
North  than  in  the  South.  One  thing  in  favor  of  toe- 
pieces  must  be  acknowledged — they,  with  the  calkins, 
restore  the  natural  position  of  the  foot  and  preserve  the 
level  of  the  shoe.  On  the  larger  draught  horses,  the  toe- 
pieces  permit  a  lighter  shoe  to  be  used,  as  the  portion  of 
iron  between  heels  and  toe  need  not  be  thick  to  resist 
wear.  It  only  requires  to  be  strong  enough  to  support 
weight,  and  much  less  iron  is  therefore  used. 

The  heavy  dray  horse  of  the  North,  shod  with  toe- 
pieces  and  calkins,  is  never  worked  at  a  trot.     In  Lon- 
don, all  horses  are  trotted—  a  proceeding  which  reflects'. 
<liscredit  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  managers. 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES. 


63- 


I  must  mention  another  objection  to  calkins.  They 
increase  the  tendency  to  "cut,"  and  iiiany  horses  will 
•cease  "cutting"  after  calkins  are  removed  and  a  level 
shoe  has  been  adopted. 

Nails  and  Nail-Holes. — It  is  necessary  to  consider 
these  together,  as  they  are  dependent  on  each  other. 
Shoes  were  first  nailed  to  the  feet  by  flat-headed  nails, 
and  probably  it  was  a  long  time  before  the  wedge-headed 
nail  was  thought  of.  When  the  nail  head  fits  into  the 
nail  hole,  it  may  retain  the  shoe  till  it  is  worn  as  thin  as 
a  x)enny,  but  if  only  the  shank  of  the  nail  enters  the  shoe, 
the  head  is  soon  worn  off  and  the  shoe  becomes  loose. 
Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  horse-shoe  nail  trade 
has  been  revolutionized  by  the  introduction  of  machinery. 
Machine-made  nails  are  now  almost  entirely  used,  and 
the  three  or  four  leading  brands  are  as  near  perfection  as 
were  the  very  best  hand-made.  Practically  there  is  no 
fault  to  find  with  them,  and  as  they  are  ready-pointed 
for  driving,  they  save  time  and  labor  in  the  forge.  They 
are  made  in  various  sizes,  and  numbered  from  2  to  16. 
Only  the  very  best  iron  can  be  used  to  produce  good 
nails.  Nothing  is  dearer  than  bad  nails,  which  cause 
injury  to  the  foot  and  loss  of  shoes. 


Fig.  41.— Good  and  bad  nail-holes. 

A  good  nail  should  present  certain  forms  of  head, 
neck  and  shank.  The  head  should  not  be  too  broad  at 
the  top  or  it  may  become  fixed  in  the  nail-hole  only  by 
its  upper  edge,  as  shown  in  the  middle  diagram  (Fig.  41), 
and  Avhen  the  shoe  has  had  a  few  days'  wear,  the  nail 
loses  its  hold,  and  the  shoe  is  loose.  The  neck  should 
not  be  too  thick,  as  it  is  then  liable  to  press  on  the  sen- 
sitive  foot  and  to  break  the  wall.     The  shank  should 


64  THE   ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

not  be  too  wide  or  too  thick.  The  point  should  not  be- 
too  long  or  too  tapered,  as  this  leaves  insufficient  metal 
to  form  a  good  clinch.. 

There  are  two  methods  of  putting  nail-holes  into 
shoes — by  "fullering"  and  by  "stamping."  A  stamped 
shoe  is  one  in  which  the  nail-holes  are  merely  punclied 
at  certain  distances,  so  as  to  leave  four- sided  tapered 
holes  of  the  exact  shape  of  a  nail-head.  A  fullered  shoe 
is  one  having  a  groove  round  the  circumference  through 
which  the  nail-holes  are  punched.  Both  processes,  when 
well  done,  admit  of  nails  being  driven  into  the  hoof  with 
equal  safety  and  ease. 

Whether  stamped  or  fullered,  there  are  a  few  more 
important  points  to  remember  about  the  nail-holes.  The 
wall  is  not  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  but 
becomes  thinner  towards  the  heels.  The  inner  side  of 
the  foot  is  also  somewhat  thinner  and  more  upright  than 
the  outer.  The  safest  position,  then,  for  the  nails  is  in 
the  front  half  of  the  foot,  but  should  this  position  not 
present  sound  horn,  they  may  be  placed  further  back. 
The  danger  of  placing  nails  near  the  heels  is  due  entirely 
to  the  greater  risk  in  driving  them  through  the  thin  horn. 
There  need  be  no  fear  of  interfering  with  expansion. 

The  distance  of  the  nail-holes  from  the  outer  edge 
of  the  shoe  should  depend  upon  the  thickness  of  the  horn 
of  the  wall,  and  therefore  be  greater  in  large  shoes  than 
in  smaller,  and  greater  at  the  toe  than  at  the  lieels  of  the 
same  shoe.  When  the  nail-holes  are  all  near  to  the  cir-' 
cumference  of  the  shoe  (Fig.  43  b)  they  are  described  as 
"fine";  when  they  are  all  placed  far  from  the  edge 
(Fig.  43  a)  they  are  called  "coarse."  When  the  nail- 
holes  are  too  "  fine,"  a  nail  has  to  be  driven  high  up  in 
the  wall  to  obtain  a  firm  hold,  and  this  is  liable  to  split 
the  horn.  When  nail  holes  are  too  "  coarse,"  the  nail  in 
driving  goes  dangerously  near  the  sensitive  foot.  The 
evils  of  coarse  and  fine  nailing  depend  a  great  deal  upon 
the  method  of  fitting  the  shoes.  When  shoes  are  fitted 
full  to  the  foot  (when  the  outer  circumference  of  the 
shoe  is  greater  than  the  circumference  of  the  wall) 
*'  coarse  "  nail-holes  are  brought  to  about  their  best  posi- 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES. 


65 


tion.  When  shoes  are  fitted  close  (i.e.,  wlieii  their  outer 
edge  is  brought  within  the  border  of  the  wall),  "fine" 
nail-holes  are  brought  to  their  best  position  in  relation 
to  the  foot.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  fit  of  a 
shoe  ought  not  to  be  subject  to  the  position  of  the  nail- 
holes,  but  that  these  should  be  properly  placed,  so  that 
fitting  be  guided  only  by  the  requirements  of  the  foot. 


A.  B. 

Fig.  43. — Wrongly  placed  Nail-holes  (a  too  coarse,  b  too  fine). 

Each  nail-hole,  when  proj)erly  placed — neither  too 
coarse  nor  too  fine — should  be  punched  straight  through 
the  shoe  and  not  inclined  either  inwards  or  outwards, 
except  at  the  toe,  where  the  slope  of  the  wall  is  followed 
by  slightly  pitching  in.  When  a  fuller  is  used,  the 
groove  made  should  be  wide;  then  the  farrier  has  more 
command  over  the  direction  of  his  nail.  If  the  nail-hole 
be  pitched  in,  the  nail  must  take  that  direction  and  is 
liable  to  wound  the  foot.  If  the  nail-hole  be  pitched  out, 
the  nail  is  prevented  from  taking  sufficient  hold  of  the 
horn. 

The  position  and  direction  of  the  nail-hole  control 
the  passage  of  a  nail  through  a  shoe  and  into  the  hoof. 
The  man  who  drives  a  nail  is  usually  blamed  for  laming 


66 


THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


a  horse,  but  in  most  cases  it  would  be  more  just  to  blame 
the  man  who  made  the  nail-holes  or  fitted  the  shoe  and 
so  rendered  safe  driving  difficult  or  impossible. 


Fig.  43.— Nail-holes  "  pitched  "  in  and  out. 

Each  nail-hole  should  be  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
other — say,  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  apart. 
When  the  two  front  or  toe  nail-holes  are  put  too-  far 
back,  the  whole  are  crowded,  or  the  last  are  pushed  back 
too  near  the  heels. 

For  small  shoes,  four  or  five  nail-holes  are  sufficient. 
Medium-sized  shoes  should  have  from  five  to  seven,  and 
the  heavy  shoes  of  big  draught  horses  must  have  eight. 
The  number  of  nail-holes  need  not  always  be  increased 
in  proportion  of  the  size  of  the  shoe,  because  as  the 
weight  of  shoe  is  increased,  so  is  the  size  of  the  nail,  and 
an  extra  strong  nail  may  take  the  place  of  additional 
ones.  The  fewer  nails  .in  a  foot  the  better,  but  as  a 
properly-placed  nail  does  no  harm,  and  as  the  loss  of  a 
shoe  may  be  very  serious,  it  is  better  to  have  one  too 
many  than  one  too  few. 

Machine-made  Shoes. — Horse-shoeing  is  distinctly 
an  art  requiring  special  skill  for  its  proper  x>erforixiance. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  most  laborious  of  all  skilled  trades. 
Anything  which  lightens  mechanical  toil  tends  to  im- 
prove the  mental  and  artistic  qualities  of  the  workman, 
and  all  applications  of  machinery  which  lessen  the  heavy 
manual  labor  of  the  farrier  may  therefore  be  looked  upon 
as  improvements.  Machinery  has  lightened  the  labor 
of  shoe-making  in  two  ways — by  supplying  various  pat- 
terns of  grooved  and  bevelled  iron  in  bars,  which  only 
require  cutting  into  lengths  and  turning  round  to  forma 
shoe,  and  also  by  making  shoes  all  ready  to  be  fitted  to 


THE  FORM  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHOES- 


6? 


the  foot.  Machinery  has  not  yet  turned  out  a  shoe  as 
good  and  durable  and  well  finished  as  the  best  workman 
can  produce  by  hand,  but  it  can  produce  many  forms  of 
shoes  as  good  for  all  practical  purposes,  and  it  has  this 


Fig.  44.— Machine-made  Shoe— Fore-footo 

a,d vantage— all  are  alike.  Bad  workmen  make  bad 
shoes,  but  a  machine,  once  able  to  produce  a  good  model, 
■can  repeat  it  exactly,  therefore  machine-made  shoes  of  a 


Fig.  45.— Machine-made  Shoe— Hind-foot. 

proper  pattern  are  superior  to  all  but  the  very  best  hand- 
made shoes.  Economy,  of  course,  is  on  the  side  of  the 
article  produced  by  machinery,  and  all  large  firms  keep- 
ing their  own  farriers  find  a  great  saving  by  buying  the 


G8 


THE   ART   OF    HORSE-SHOEING. 


ready-made  shoes.  Under  conditions  when,  shoes  must 
be  fitted  without  a  fire,  as  in  coal  mines,  or  in  the  case  of 
armies  during  a  campaign,  the  machine-made  article  has 
the  advantages  of  regularity  of  form  and  a  true  level 
bearing  surface. 


\ 


.■« 


I         46.— Sections  of  rolled  bar  iron. 

In  little  shops  where  often  only  one  man  is  at  work, 
either  machine-made  shoes  or  prepared  bar  iron  offer 
great  conveniences.  The  prepared  bars  can  be  bought 
seated  on  the  foot-surface  and  with  a  single  or  double 
groove  on  tlie  ground-surface.  Very  narrow  bars  suit- 
able for  tips,  "Charlier,"  or  light  hack  shoes  are  now 
widely  used,  and  a  special  bar — flat  on  the  foot-surface, 
concave  to  the  ground — can  be  obtained  which  only 
requires  cutting  into  lengths  and  turning  round  to  form 
a  first-class  hunting-shoe. 


Fic.  47.— Sections  of  liglit  pattern  bar  iron. 

Both  prepared  bars  and  machine-made  shoes  must  be 
judged  by  their  form  and  by  the  material  used  in  their 
manufacture.  Some  are  better  than  others,  but  all  have 
to  contend  with  a  large  amount  of  trade  prejudice  which 
has  little  basis,  except  in  the  matter  of  the  hind  shoes;, 
here  machinery  has  not  yet  reached  perfection. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Selection  of  Shoes. 

In  practice,  a  faiTier  does  not  trouble  miicli  about 
the  selection  of  suitable  shoes.  The  rule  is  to  apply 
whatever  form  of  a  shoe  the  horse  has  been  wearing,  and 
only  to  venture  an  opinion  as  to  alterations  when  asked 
by  the  owner.  When  the  selection  of  a  suitable  shoe  is^ 
left  to  the  workman  he  takes  into  consideration  the  work 
required  of  the  horse,  the  form  of  the  feet,  and  the  wear 
of  the  old  shoes.  The  form  of  the  old  shoes  indicates  not 
only  whether  a  horse  is  a  light  or  hard  wearer,  but  what 
parts  of  the  shoe  are  most  worn,  and  thus  enables  provi- 
sion to  be  made  against  excessive  or  irregular  wear. 
The  form  of  the  feet  indicates  not  only  what  size  of  shoe 
is  requisite,  but  also  what  special  weakness  or  strength  is 
to  be  encountered.  It  is  also  necessary  to  note  the  con- 
dition of  the  fetlocks  and  knees,  which  may  show  signs 
of  "  brushi)ig  "  or  "speedy  cutting."  According  to  all 
these  appearances  a  shoe  should  be  selected.  For  the 
different  classes  of  horses  there  are  well-known  forms  of 
shoe  which  present  special  advantages,  thus:  — 

The  Race  Horse,  when  in  training,  may  be  shod 
with  a  very  light  shoe,  but  on  the  turf  he  requires  the 
lightest  contrivance  capable  of  protecting  the  hoof  and 
affording  good  foot-hold.  The  ordinary  racing  plate 
answers  these  requirements.  It  is  made  in  a  "  crease,"'  or 
tool,  or  may  be  made  from  specially  prepared  bars  which 
only  need  cutting  into  lengths  and  turning  round.  The 
plate  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  wide  by  one-eighth 
thick.  The  foot-surface  is  flat,-  and  the  ground- surface 
is  fullered  and  concave. 

Steeple-Chase  plates  are  made  on  the  same  i:)attern, 
but  should  be  a  little  stronger,  so  as  to  avoid  even  the^ 
possibility  of  becoming  twisted  on  the  foot. 

69 


70  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

Hunting  Shoes  should  be  liglit,  very  secure,  and  of 
^  form  to  give  good  foot-hold.  The  best  are  flat  on  the 
foot-surface,  and  fullered  and  concave  on  the  ground- 
surface.  The  hind  shoe  should  also  be  concave  on  the 
ground  surface,  but  to  avoid  the  injury  of  over- reaching 
the  inner  circumference  at  the  toe  should  be  rounded  and 
smooth.  A  small  square  calkin  at  each  heel  affords  grip 
on  grass,  and  especially  in  going  down  hill  at  a  fast  pace. 

Hacks,  being  used  on  hard  roads,  must  have  heavier 
shoes  than  hunters,  but  the  form  may  be  the  same. 

Carriage  Horses  require  more  substance  in  their 
shoes  tlian  hacks,  and  the  narrow  concave  shoes  suitable 
for  hunters  and  hacks  cannot  give  sufficient  durability. 
The  double-grooved  shoe  known  as  "  Rodway's '' is  the 
best  for  this  class.  On  ordinary  roads  the  hind  feet  may 
be  shod  with  a  common  two  heeled  shoe,  but  on  wood 
and  asphalt,  the  heavier  sizes  of  Rodway  iron  make  a 
shoe  that  affords  very  good  foot-hold  and  dispenses  with 
the  necessity  for  calkins. 

Omnibus  and  Van  Horses  require  stronger  shoes  to 
meet  the  hard  wear  entailed  by  their  work.  The  heavy 
Rodway  iron  makes  very  suitable  front  shoes,  but  the 
hind  shoes  must  be  solid  with  only  a  fullering  for  the 
nails,  or,  as  many  prefer,  each  nail-hole  separately 
stamped.  As  a  rule,  the  hind  shoes  of  this  class  of  horse 
have  calkins  on  the  outside  heel.  If  the  vehicle  in  which 
they  run  is  provided  with  a  foot-break,  calkins  are 
unnecessary,  and  the  advantages  of  a  level  shoe  should 
be  made  use  of.  The  advantages  are — better  foot-hold, 
longer  wear  and  less  danger  from  treads  and  "cutting." 

Heavy  Draught  Horses. — In  Scotland  and  in  the 
North  of  England,  this  class  of  horse  is  shod  with  a  toe- 
piece  and  calkins  on  both  fore  and  hind-shoes.  In  Lon- 
don, calkins  are  only  put  on  the  hind  shoes,  and  toe- 
pieces  are  not  used  at  all.  On  paved  streets  where  a 
space  exists  between  the  rows  of  stones,  and  especially  if 
the  road  be  hilly,  I  think  toe-pieces  are  advisable,  and  of 
course  when  they  are  used,  calkins  must  be  also  made. 


SELECTION  OF  SHOES.  71 

Horses  having  become  accustomed  to  toe-pieces,  wlieii 
sliod  with  a  level  shoe,  slip  much  more  for  a  week  or  two 
than  do  horses  which  have  never  learned  to  rely  upon 
the  bar  across  the  toe.  Everything  considered,  I  incline 
to  prefer  a  level  shoe  in  front,  and  a  shoe  with  two  low 
square  calkins  behind  for  heavy  draught  horses.  The 
enormous  width  of  shoe  often  used  in  London  is  quite 
unnecessary,  it  is  very  heavy  and  it  favors  slipping. 
A  narrower  shoe  must,  of  course,  be  a  little  thicker  to 
meet  the  wear,  but  it  is  lighter  and  affords  better  foot- 
hold, and  as  slipping  and  fatigue  are  both  causes  of 
excessive  wear,  a  narrow  shoe,  weight  for  weight,  Avill 
last  longer  than  a  broad  flat  one. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Fitting'  and  Application  of  Shoes. 

Having  selected  slioes  suitable  for  the  feet  and 
-adapted  to  the  special  work  of  the  horse,  having  also 
prepared  the  foot  for  shoeing,  we  arrive  at  another 
important  part  of  the  farrier's  art— fitting  the  shoe.  No 
matter  what  form  of  shoe  be  used  or  how  the  foot  be 
prepared  for  it,  unless  the  two  are  properly  fitted,  the 
horse  does  not  obtain  all  the  advantages  of  good  shoeing, 
and  may  be  positively  injured.  The  owner  of  horse& 
seldom  knows  anything  about  the  fitting  of  shoes,  and 
therefore  fails  to  appreciate  how  some  of  his  directions 
concerning  feet  and  shoes  are  qiiite  impracticable. 

I  have,  in  a  previous  chapter,  attempted  to  show 
how  a  foot  should  be  prepared  for  shoeing,  and  what 
bearing  surface  should  be  left  for  the  shoe.  I  have  also 
described  what  I  consider  the  best  forms  of  shoe.  The 
object,  at  all  times,  should  be  to  follow  nature  as  closely 
as  possible,  but  it  often  happens  that  we  may,  with 
benefit,  depart  from  the  exact  indications  given  and  still 
fulfil  all  essential  requirements.  If  we  examine  the 
unshod  foot  which  has  been  worn  down  to  proper  pro- 
portions, we  find  the  bearing  surface  is  not  level — it  is 


Fig.  48.— Shoe  fitted  to  a  curved  foot-surface. 

worn  more  at  the  toe  and  heels  than  elsewhere.  If  we 
examine  the  ground  surface  of  an  old  shoe  the  same 
thing  is  noticed — the  surface  is  not  level,  the  toe  and  heel 
show  most  wear.  The  question  then  arises,  should  we 
make  the  artificial  bearing  surface  of  the  foot  on  the 
same  plan  and  adjust  the  shoe  to  it,  as  in  Fig.  48,  or 

73 


FITTING   AND    APPLICATION  OF   SHOES.  73 

sliould  we  make  tlie  surface  level  and  apply  a  level  shoe 
as  ill  Fig.  49?  I  believe  that  the  ideal  arrangement 
would  be  to  follow  the  line  suggested  by  a  worn  foot  or 
a  worn  shoe,  but  it  is  difficult  to  carry  out,  and  greater 
exactness  of  fit  is  more  readily  obtained  by  two  level 


/ 


Fig,  49.— Level  shoe  fitted  to  level  foot-surface. 

surfaces.  The  ground  surface  of  a  shoe  may,  if  neces- 
sary, be  altered  to  suit  the  outline  of  wear,  whilst  the 
level  foot-surface  is  preserved.  Whatever  form  the  far- 
rier adopts,  a  shoe  should  rest  equally  throughout,  and 
the  contact  of  foot  and  shoe  should  be  exact  over  the 
whole  bearing  surface.  Assuming  then  that  a  properly 
prepared  foot  presents  a  level  surface,  the  fitting  of  shoes 
becomes  simple  so  long  as  the  smith  possesses  manual 
dexterity  and  follows  the  indications  of  common  sense. 

There  are  two  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  (1)  to  fit  the 
shoe  to  the  plain  surface  of  the  foot,  (2)  to  fit  the  shoe  to 
the  circumference  of  the  wall.  Most  amateurs  judge 
shoeing  by  the  way  a  shoe  follows  the  outline  of  the 
hoof,  but  the  practical  man  knows  that  it  is  equally 
difficult  and  important  to  fit  the  surface. 

Outline  Fitting. — A  shoe  is  first  compared  with 
the  foot,  it  is  then  heated,  and  the  heels  cut  off  or  turned 
down  to  the  proper  length.  Each  limb  of  the  shoe  is 
fitted  to  follow  the  outline  of  the  wall,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  warn  the  novice  than  the  inside  and  outside  borders 
of  a  foot  are  not  alike.  The  outside  is  rounder  and 
fuller,  and  the  shoe  should  be  shaped  to  follow  exactly 
the  direction  of  the  wall.  The  outer  border  of  a  shoe 
should  always  be  as  prominent  as  the  outer  border  of  the 
hoof;  it  should  never  be  within  it.  The  inner  border 
must  not  protrude  beyond  the  wall  lest  the  opposite  leg 
"be  struck.     A  well  fitted  shoe  must  be  fitted  full  to  the 


74  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

foot.  What  is  called  "close"  fitting,  i.  e.,  bringing  the 
shoe  rather  within  the  circumference  of  the  wall,  is 
injurious,  as  it  loses  the  best  and  strongest  bearing  of  the 
wall,  and  permits  the  farrier  to  give  an  appearance  of 
neatness  by  rasping  away  any  horn  which  protrudes 
beyond  the  shoe.  On  a  well-shaped  foot,  the  shoe  should 
follow  the  outer  line  of  the  hoof  from  toe  to  heel,  but 
where  the  heels  of  a  foot  are  turned  inwards,  there  is  an 
advantage  in  fitting  the  shoe  wider  at  the  heels,  as  by  sO' 
doing  the  base  of  the  foot  is  not  constricted  and  a  wider 
resting  surface  is  afforded  to  the  limb.  When  a  shoe  is- 
fitted  wide  at  the  heels,  it  is  essential  that  the  foot-sur- 
face of  the  shoe  should  be  level  at  the  heels.  If  it  be 
inclined,  as  it  often  is  in  seated  shoes,  a  very  grave  defect 
in  the  fitting  results,  for  the  heels  have  no  level  bearnig- 
surface. 

A  shoe  fitted  too  wide  is  liable  to  be  trodden  off  by 
the  opposite  foot,  or  it  may  cause  the  horse  to  hit  the- 
opposite  fetlock  joint. 

Provided  the  nail  holes  are  properly  placed,  when  the 
outside  border  of  the  shoe  is  fitted  nicely  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  hoof,  they  are  brought  to  their  right  posi- 
tion. When  nail  holes  are  placed  too  near  or  too  far 
from  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe — i.e.,  when  they  are 
too  "fine"  or  too  "coarse" — it  may  be  necessary  to 
correct  their  position  by  fitting  the  shoe  "closer"  or 
"  fuller,"  as  the  case  may  be.  When  a  farrier  fits  shoes- 
made  by  another  man  he  may  overlook  this,  as  we  are 
all  slaves  to  habit.  The  man  who  in  his  daily  practice 
combines  "close"  fitting  with  "fine"  nailing  has  ta 
alter  his  routine  when  fitting  a  shoe  with  coarse  nail- 
holes. 

The  length  of  a  shoe  at  the  heels  is  a  matter  of  more 
importance  than  is  generally  recognized.  As  a  rule, 
hunters  are  all  shod  too  short,  while  most  cart  horses  are 
shod  too  long.  The  objections  to  a  long  front  shoe  are 
that  it  is  liable  to  be  trodden  off  by  the  hind  shoe,  and 
that  it  may  injure  the  elbow  when  the  horse  lies  down. 
A  long  hind  shoe  is  free  from  both  these  disadvantages,. 
and  as  it  usually  has  a  calkin,  is  the  best  form  to  adopt.. 


FITTING   AND    APPLICATION  OF  SHOES.  75 

111  fitting-  the  heels  of  front  shoes,  in  all  hut  gallop- 
ing horses,  the  iron  should  generally  extend  slightly 
behind  the  extremity  of  the  horn.  (Fig.  48.)  Horses  used 
for  galloping  should  have  the  end  of  the  shoe  just  within 
the  termination  of  the  horn,  and  it  should  finish  with  an 
oblique  extremity.  (Fig.  50.)  There  is  nothing  gained  by 


/ 


Fig,  50.— Shoe  fitted  short  at  the  heels. 

greater  shortening,  if  the  iron  be  fitted  exactly  to  the 
horn.  Why  shoes  are  often  pulled  off,  when  only  just 
the  length  of  the  hoof,  is  because  they  are  not  fitted  close 
enough,  and  very  often  because  they  are  wilfully  and 
ignorantly  designed  to  leave  a  space  between  hoof  and 
iron.  This  so-called  "eased"  heel  is  an  unmitigated 
evil. 

Surface-Fitting. — It  is  simple  to  direct  that  the^ 
bearing-surface  of  a  shoe  should  be  exactly  adapted  to 
the  bearing-surface  of  a  foot.  It  is  not  so  simple  to  carry 
out.  When  the  horn  of  the  lower  surface  of  a  foot  is 
thin,  any  uneven  pressure — i.e.,  pressure  applied  directly 
to  one  spot — soon  causes  injury,  pain  and  lameness. 
When  a  good  thick  layer  of  horn  exists,  uneven  ]3res- 
sures  are  less  injurious,  because  the  horn  distributes 
them  over  a  wide  surface.  Good  workmanship  is  dis- 
played by  leaving  no  uneven  pressure,  and  by  so  fittings 
a  shoe  that  it  shall  do  no  harm.  With  a  narrow  shoe — 
one  only  the  width  of  the  wall — no  uneven  pressure  can 
be  applied  to  the  sensitive  foot,  but  such  a  shoe  is  seldom 
used,  as  it  is  too  light  to  afford  sufii(5ient  wear.  A  wide- 
shoe  with  a  flat  foot  surface  is  easily  fitted  on  all  concave 
feet — i.e. ,  on  all  hind  and  most  fore  feet.  To  make  use  of 
the  whole  bearing-surface,  a  shoe  must  rest  evenly  from 
toe  to  heel — the  flat  surface  of  the  shoe  must  take  a  level 
bearing  on  the  whole  flat  bearing-surface  of  the  foot. 


76  THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

There  are  two  j^laces  where  injury  from  uneven 
pressure  is  most  likely  to  happen — at  the  toe  and.  at  the 
heels. 

In  preparing  a  foot,  the  wall  at  the  toe  may,  from 
want  of  care,  be  reduced  a  little  below  the  level  of  the 
sole,  or  in  making  a  shoe  the  inside  border  at  the  toe 
may  be  left  higher  than  the  outside.  In  each  case, 
uneven  pressure  is  placed  on  the  sole  just  where  the  back 
border  of  the  shoe  rests.  In  fitting  a  hot  shoe,  wherever 
the  hoof  is  unduly  marked,  warning  is  given  that  pres- 
sure at  that  point  must  be  prevented  by  altering  the  sur- 
face either  of  the  shoe  or  the  foot.  On  a  strong  foot,  the 
knife  may  be  used  to  remove  a  little  horn;  on  a  weak 
foot,  the  alteration  must  be  on  the  shoe. 

At  the  heel,  uneven  pressure  is  most  frequent  oh  the 
angle  of  sole  between  the  wall  and  bar,  where  it  causes 
the  so-called  "corn" — a  condition  in  the  horse  having 
no  analogy  to  the  affliction  similarly  named  in  the  human 
subject.  It  is  simply  a  bruise  of  the  sensitive  parts 
under  the  horn. 

A  bruised  heel — a  corn — is  most  likely  to  arise  from 
the  use  of  a  shoe  too  short,  especially  if  fitted  too  close. 
It  may  arise  from  a  properly- fitted,  shoe  retained  too 
long  on  the  foot  and  shifted  from  its  proper  bearing  on 
the  wall  to  an  improper  bearing  on  the  sole.  A  bruised 
heel  may  also  result  from  the  use  of  a  well-made  shoe  if 
the  preparation  of  the  hoof  has  been  faulty.  Rule-of- 
thumb  directions  to  "reduce  the  heels  to  a  level  by  the 
use  of  the  rasp,  but  on  no  account  cut  away  any  sole," 
may  result  in  injury.  In  a  strong  foot  with  an  over- 
grown sole  it  is  easy  to  get  a  level  surface  and  to  fit  on 
to  it  a  level  shoe,  but  the  horn  of  the  sole  does  not  remain 
level.  As  it  grows  and  flakes  off,  the  portion  between 
the  bar  and  wall  is  raised.  If  the  weather  be  wet  it 
swells,  and  then,  bound  down  by  the  shoe,  it  acts  simply 
ns  a  stone  might,  and  bruises  the  sensitive  parts  within 
by  its  uneven  pressure.  It  is  always  safe  and  it  is  never 
injurious  to  remove  so  much  of  the  surface  of  this  por- 
tion of  sole  with  the  drawing-knife  as  will  ensure  no 
uneven  pressure  on  it  by  the  shoe. 


FITTING  AND  APPLICATION  OF  SHOES.  7T 

The  more  exactly  the  shoe  fits  the  foot-surface  th© 
more  easily  it  is  retained  in  position  by  the  nails,  and  the 
less  likelihood  there  is  of  any  part  of  it  pressing  dis- 
tinctly on  a  limited  portion  of  horn.  Exact  fitting 
allows  all  bearings  and  pressures  to  be  distributed 
equally  over  the  surface  of  the  hoof,  and  thus  permits 
the  shoe  most  nearly  to  resemble  a  mere  continuation  of 
the  hoof  in  iron — an  arrangement  to  prevent  wear,  but 
not  to  interfere  with  natural  functions.  There  is  one 
departure  from  level  fitting  which  requires  special  notice, 
since  it  is  made,  not  by  accident  or  negligence,  but  by 
design.  It  consists  in  taking  the  bearing  of  an  inch  or 
an  inch  and  a  half  of  the  extremity  of  the  shoe  off  the 
foot.  (Fig.  51.)  It  has  been  called  "easing  the  heels," 


y 


7 


Fig.  51.— An  "  eased  "  heel. 


and  the  space  permits  a  knife-blade,  sometimes  even  a 
pencil,  to  be  placed  between  the  shoe  and  the  foot.     It  is 
one  of  the  very  worst  practices  that  theory  has  forced 
into  horse-shoeing.     Men  who  do  it  say  "  the  heels  won't 
«tand  pressure."     I  reply  they  will  stand  all  proper  pres- 
sure, and  a  good  deal  more  than  the  quarters.     But  the 
practice  does  not  relieve  the  heels  of  pressure.     If  you 
■examine  a  shoe  fitted  in  this  way,  after  it  has  done  a 
month's  service,   you  will    find  it  sometimes  polished 
bright,  sometimes  with  a  deep  groove  worn  into  it.    You 
may  also  test  its  bearing  by  raising  the  foot  from  the 
ground  and  inserting  between  shoe  and  hoof  a  flat  bit  of 
wood,  then  on  releasing  the  foot  and  raising  the  opposite 
one,  you  will  find  that  the  bearing  is  such  that  the  bit  of 
wood  cannot  be  removed.     The  "eased  heel  "does  not 
relieve  the  heels  of  pressure,  but,  instead  of  constant 
normal  bearing,  it  permits  a  downward  movement  of  the 
back  of  the  foot  at  each  step — which  is  unnatural,  and 


78 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


"wliicli  cannot  occur  in  an  unsliood  foot  on  a  level  sur- 
face. The  "  eased  lieel  "  does  more  than  this.  It  wastes 
a  large  extent  of  good  hearing-surface,  and  it  concen- 
trates pressure  at  one  point — where  the  shoe  and  foot 
meet — at  the  quarters.  It  loses  good  bearing-surface- 
where  it  is  important  to  have  it,  and  unevenly  throws, 
extra  weight  on  the  quarters,  which  are  the  weakest  parts 
of  the  wall.  An  "  eased  heel"  has  not  one  single  advan- 
tage, but  it  has  every  disadvantage  which  misplaced 
ingenuity  could  contrive. 

For  flat  feet,  a  wide  shoe  with  a  flat  foot- surface  is- 
unsafe,  as  there  is  liability  to  uneven  pressure  on  the- 
sole.  For  such  feet,  the  safer  form  of  foot-surface  is 
one  presenting  a  level  narrow  bearing  surface  round  its^ 
outer  border,  from  which  an  inclined  or  bevelled  surface 
continues  the  shoe  inwards.  (Fig.  52.)   This  form  of  shoe-. 


Fig.  52.— Section  of  a  seated  shoe. 

can  be  fitted  to  nearly  any  kind  of  foot.  To  escape  injury 
to  a  flat  sole,  "seating  out"  shoes  is  necessary,  but  the 
operation  should  always  leave  a  level  bearing-surface 
for  the  wall.  When  a  shoe  is  seated  from  one  side  to  the 
other  so  as  to  i^roduce  a  saucer-shaioed  surface,  harm  is 
done  to  the  foot.  Such  a  shoe  presents  no  level  bearing- 
surface,  and  the  weight  of  the  horse  pressing  the  wall  on 
an  inclined  plane  causes  the  foot  to  be  pinched  or  com- 
pressed in  a  manner  which  soon  causes  lameness.  (Fig.  53.) 
A  few  years  ago,  these  shoes  were  too  common,  and  ta 
make  them  still  more  injurious,  the  foot  was  pared  out 


FITTING  AND   APPLICATION  OF   SHOES. 


79 


from  the  center  to  the  circumference  like  a  saucer,  and 
the  two  spoiled  articles  were  fitted  together.  Their  sur- 
faces of  contact  were  two  narrow  ridges,  which  even  the 
most  expert  workman  could  not  fit  without  injury  to  the 
horse. 


Fio.  53.— Section  of  a  "saucer"  shoe. 

In  Fig.  53,  a  shoe  with  an  inclined  surface  is  applied 
^.o  a  foot  with  a  bearing-surface  as  wide  as  the  wall,  but 
tlie  only  contact  is  at  the  edges.  The  horn  at  the  edge 
will  yield,  and  the  hoof  be  j^ressed  inwards,  as  the  weight 
of  the  animal  forces  the  foot  into  the  saucer-shaped  shoe. 
When  the  bearing-surface  of  the  foot,  instead  of  being 
as  wide  as  the  wall,  is  only  a  ridge,  the  horn  yields  more 
rapidly,  the  clinches  rise  and  the  shoe  becomes  loose. 

In  Fig.  54  is  shown  a  section  of  another  shoe  with  an. 
inclined  instead  of  a  level  surface,  but  the  slope  is  from 
within  outwards.  The  effect  of  this  is  exactly  the  oppo- 
site of  the  previous  shoe.  The  wall  is  forced  outwards, 
and  if  it  does  not  as  a  whole  yield  to  the  pressure,  the 
portion  in  contact  is  broken.  When  this  form  of  bear- 
ing-surface is  adopted  at  the  heels  of  a  shoe,  the  two 
sides  of  the  hoof  are  violently  forced  apart,  and  it  has 
■even  been  recommended  as  a  means  of  exi^anding  the 
foot;  but  forcible  expansion  is  both  unnecessary  and  dan- 
gerous. 

Always  regarding  the  shoe  as  an  extension  of  the 
natural  hoof  in  a  harder  and  more  durable  material,  it  is 
■evident  that  the  most  stability  will  be  attained  by  the 


so 


THE  ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


use  of  as  wide  a  bearing-surface  of  foot  and  shoe  as  is- 
compatible  with  ease  and  safety  to  the  horse. 

In  Fig.  55  is  shown  a  section  of  a  narrow  shoe  which 
takes  a  bearing  over  the  whole  extent  of  its  foot-surface. 


Fig.  54. — Bearing-surface  inclined 
outwards. 


Fig.  55. — Narrow  shoe  with 
level  bearing-surface. 


Ill  Fig.  5G  is  shown  a  shoe  with  as  wide  a  bearing- 
surface  as  in  Fig.  55,  but  which  loses  half  its  bearing 
because  the  foot-surface  is  too  narrow  to  utilize  it. 


Fig.  56.— Bearing-surface  of 
foot  too  narrow. 


Fig.  57.~A  good  bearing- 
surface. 


In  Fig.  57  we  have  a  model  bearing-surface  on  the 
foot,  nearly  twice  the  width  of  the  wall,  and  we  have  a. 
shoe  with  a  flat  foot -surface  capable  of  using  the  whole^ 
"bearing.  Such  is  the  fitting  of  all  hind  shoes,  and  it 
might  well  be  adopted  with  advantage  in  all  fore  shoes. 
on  good  feet. 


FITTING   AND   APPLICATION   OF   SHOES.  81 

Clips  are  tliin  projections  drawn  up  from  the  outer 
border  of  shoes  for  the  purpose  of  giving  greater  security 
to  their  position  on  a  foot.  On  heavy  cart-horses,  the 
clips  are  sometimes  of  great  size  and  encourage  the  idea 
that  the  smith  looks  upon  them  as  designed  to  assist  the 
nails  to  retain  the  shoe  on  the  foot.  They  should  have 
no  such  purpose,  their  use  being  merely  to  j^revent  the 
shoe  shifting  to  one  side.  A  clip  should  not  be  narrow 
and  high,  it  should  be  low  and  wide,  so  that  its  bearing  is 
taken  against  the  lower  edge  of  the  Avail.  A  high  clip  is 
a  most  serious  danger  when  shoes  get  loose  and  are 
trodden  on  by  the  horse.  The  usual  position  for  a  clip 
is  at  the  toe,  but  there  are  occasions  when  two  clips  — 
one  at  each  side  of  the  toe — are  used.  On  some  shoes,  a 
clip  is  placed  at  the  outer  quarter  to  prevent  the  shoe 
being  disx)laced  inwards;  this  is  more  often  required  on 
hind  shoes.  A  clip  at  the  toe  affords  some  assistance  in 
fitting  a  shoe  exactly,  and  it  also  affords  steadiness  to 
the  shoe  during  the  driving  of  the  first  nails.  In 
America  clips  are  not  used,  and  when  American 
machine-made  shoes  were  first  introduced  into  London 
they  were  fitted  without  clips.  I  am  bound  to  confess 
that  these  shoes  did  not  shift  on  the  feet  to  any  noticeable 
extent,  but  they  are  now  all  fitted  with  clips,  so  I  sup- 
pose the  workmen  found  they  were  an  advantage.  The 
greatest  evil  resulting  from  clips  is  seen  in  slovenly  fit- 
ting, when  the  farrier  with  his  knife  carves  out  a  great 
hole  in  the  wall  in  which  to  imbed  the  clip.  As  a  clip  is 
flat,  it  cannot  be  fitted  to  the  rounded  face  of  the  wall, 
but  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  reduce  the  round  to  a  flat 
surface  with  the  rasp,  so  that  the  clip  may  rest  on  it, 
care  being  taken  that  at  the  extreme  edge  the  horn  is  not 
left  so  prominent  as  to  be  unduly  pressed  upon  when 
the  clip  is  driven  close  to  the  wall.  It  is  easy  to  lame  a 
horse  by  violently  hammering  up  the  clip,  especially 
when  the  horn  behind  it  has  been  so  much  cut  away  as 
to  leave  only  a  thin  protecting  layer.  A  clip  should  only 
be  hammered  up  sufficiently  to  leave  it  firmly  applied  to 
the  wall.  A  bad  workman,  in  making  his  clip,  may  spoil 
the  foot-surface  of  a  shoe  by  causing  a  ridge  on  the  bear- 


S2  THE   ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

ing- surface  of  the  iron  at  the  toe,  and  this,  on  thin  or  flat 
feet,  may  cause  lameness. 

A  very  unsightly  appearance  and  very  defective 
work  resiilts  from  the  fireman  leaving  his  clip  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  the  shoe.  It  should  be  inclined 
backwards  at  about  the  same  slope  as  the  portion  of  wall 
against  which  it  is  to  rest.  The  two  diagrams  (Fig.  58) 
illustrate  what  is  meant. 


Well  drawn  clip.        Fio.  58.       Badly  drawn  clip. 

Hot  and  Cold  Fitting. — When  an  engineer  or  a 
carpenter  has  two  surfaces  to  fit  together  with  great 
exactness  he  employs  some  coloring  material  to  show 
where  they  do  come  in  contact  and  where  they  do  not. 
When  a  farrier  fits  a  shoe  to  a  horse's  foot,  he  tests  its 
fidaption  by  applying  it  at  a  dull  red  heat  to  the  horn. 
This  proceeding  shows  with  precision  the  bearing-sur- 
faces, as  the  horn  is  charred  in  proportion  to  the  contact. 
If  the  shoe  be  found  not  to  fit  exactly,  it  is  taken  back  to 
the  anvil  and  altered.  It  is  then  again  for  a  few  seconds 
iipplied  to  the  horn  and  the  surface  of  contact  examined. 
This  proceeding  is  repeated  until  sufficient  exactness  is 
arrived  at,  and  then  the  shoe  is  cooled  ready  for  nailing 
on.  As  horn  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  this  process  of 
"  hot- fitting  "  does  no  harm  to  the  sensitive  structures 
within  the  hoof,  unless  it  be  carried  to  an  extreme. 
When  the  horn  is  very  thin,  the  heat  of  a  shoe  retained 
too  long  in  contact  with  it  does  serious  mischief,  and  the 
injury  known  as  a  burnt  sole  has  often  resulted  from 
careless  work.  If  a  shoe,  whilst  being  altered  to  fit  a 
foot,  were  cooled  each  time  it  was  laid  on  the  hoof,  it 
would  have  to  be  re-heated  before  the  necessary  altera- 
tions could  be  made,  and  this  would  cause  great  waste  of 
time.  The  abuse  of  hot-fitting  may  do  harm  without 
any  direct  burning  of  the  sole.  An  ill-fitting  hot  (shoe 
may  be  held  on  the  hoof  until  it  beds  itself  into  the  horn, 
and  thus  a  complete  correspondence  between  the  surface 


FITTING   AND    APPLICATION   OF   SHOES.  83 

of  tlie  foot  and  the  surface  of  the  shoe  he  effected.  Such 
a  proceedmg  is  well  described  as  "  fitting  the  foot  to  the 
shoe,"  and  is  not  only  destructive  to  the  horn  but 
■damaging  to  the  foot,  hy  permitting  an  uneven  shoe  to 
look  as  though  it  were  properly  fitting.  When  hot-fitting 
is  used  and  not  abused — when  it  is  adopted  merely  to 
indicate  how  and  where  the  shoe  fits,  and  not  to  make  it 
appear  to  fit — I  consider  it  has  many  advantages  over 
cold-fitting.  With  some  feet  and  some  shoes  it  is  quite 
possible  to  produce  a  good  fit  without  heating  the  shoe. 
When  a  shoe  requires  much  alteration  to  bring  it  into 
exact  correspondence  with  the  foot,  even  the  most  expert 
farrier  cannot  do  justice  to  his  work  with  cold  iron;  he 
gets  as  near  to  a  fit  as  he  can,  and  when  the  hoof  is 
strong,  little  harm  is  done.  The  best  work  is  that  which 
includes  the  greatest  exactness  of  fit,  and  uneven  pres- 
,sure  or  loose  shoes  result  from  inferior  work.  A  badly 
fitted  shoe  requires  more  nails  to  retain  it  in  place,  and 
experience  has  shown  that  hot-fitted  shoes  give  a  smaller 
average  of  loose  or  lost  shoes  than  those  cold-fitted.  The 
slight  charring  of  the  end  of  the  horn  fibres,  which 
results  from  proper  hot-fitting,  has  never  been  found  to 
do  injury,  and  it  api)arently  has  some  advantages.  One 
is  that  the  surface  of  the  hoof  less  readily  absorbs  mois- 
ture than  when  not  charred.  Another  is  that  the  horn 
is  softened  for  a  time  and  expanded,  allowing  nails  to  be 
easily  driven,  and  then  contracting  and  retaining  them 
more  firmly.  The  objection  to  hot-fitting  applies  only  to 
its  abuse.  The  advantages  are  greater  exactness  of  fit, 
greater  security  that  the  shoe  will  be  firmly  retained  on 
the  foot,  and  greater  facility  in  the  operation  of  shoeing. 
Perhaps  I  ought  to  add  that  when  cold-fitting  is  inevit- 
able, machine-made  shoes  are  the  best,  because  they  are 
more  regular  in  form  and  more  often  level  on  the  foot- 
surface  than  hand-made  shoes.  Army  studs  on  active 
service,  and  studs  used  in  coal  mines  comprise,  perhaps, 
the  only  animals  upon  which  cold-fitting  is  unavoidable^ 

Tips  are  short  shoes  protecting  only  the  foremost 
half  of  the  foot.    Upon  grass  or  soft  roads,  tips  are  quite 


84 


THE   ART   OP  HORSE  SHOEING. 


sufficient  to  prevent  undue  wear  of  the  hoof.     Eveix 
upon  hard  roads  tips  will  protect  the  hoof  in  dry  weather, 
but  in  wet  seasons  the  horn  becomes  softened ,  and  then 
that  part  coming  in  contact  with  hard  road-surfaces 


Fio.  59, 


wears  rapidly,  and  lameness  may  follow.  Tips  require 
more  care  in  use  than  shoes,  because  they  protect  from 
wear  only  the  toe,   and  when  retained  on  the  foot  too 


Fig.  60.— Foot  prepared  for  a  tip, 

long  a  time  cause  the  hoof  to  become  very  disproportion- 
ately long  at  the  toe.  In  fitting  a  tip,  care  must  be  taken 
to  afford  the  horse  a  level  surface  to  bear  on.  Th& 
unprotected  horn  at  the  back  of  the  foot  must  take  a 


FITTING  AND   APPLICATION  OF   SHOES.  85- 

bearing  on  the  ground  level  witli  the  ground-surface  of 
the  tip.  If  there  is  sufficient  horn  on  the  foot,  this  can 
be  easily  effected  by  only  removing  the  overgrown  wall 
to  just  the  length  the  tip  extends  and  leaving  the  horn 
behind  untouched.  Where  there  is  not  sufficient  super- 
fluous horn,  this  method  cannot  be  used,  and  we  apply  a 
tip  gradually  thinned  off  towards  its  extremities.  If  a 
little  horn  can  be  removed  obliquely  from  the  front  half 
of  the  foot  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  rasp,  this  "  thinned  "^ 


FiQ.  61,— An  ordinary  and  a  "thinned"  tip. 

tip  is  more  easily  fitted  so  as  to  get  a  level  surface  on  the 
ground.  When  a  horse  has  worn  this  form  for  a  month, 
it  is  generally  possible  to  bring  a  tip,  of  even  thickness 
throughout,  into  the  same  line  of  bearing  as  the  horn  at 
the  heels. 

Tips  do  not  give  a  good  foot-hold  on  grass,  but  they 
afford  greater  security  of  tread  on  hard,  smooth  roads 
and  on  ice  than  long  shoes.  The  great  advantages  of 
tips  are  two-fold — they  are  light,  and  they  j)ermit  the 
greatest  freedom  of  movement  and  action  in  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  foot.  In  some  cases  of  chronic  foot 
lameness  the  use  of  tips  and  regular  work  will  effect 
soundness  when  every  other  method  of  treatment  has 
failed. 

The  Charlier  System  is  a  method  of  shoeing 
which  a  few  years  ago  took  a  very  jjrominent  hold  on  the 
fancy  of  horse-owners.  Like  every  other  system  it  has 
advantages  and  disadvantges — it  has  prejudiced  enemies 
and  indiscreet  friends.  The  principle  or  theory  upon 
"VV-hich  it  is  based  may  be  thus  stated.  The  lower  border 
of  the  wall  is,  it  is  said,  the  chief  sustaining  structure  of 
the  hoof,  and  as  all  that  is  required  of  a  shoe  is  to  pre- 


-86 


THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


vent  undue  wear,  therefore,  remove  a  small  strip  of  the 
lower  border  of  the  wall  and  substitute  for  it  a  similar 
sized  strip  of  iron,  and  we  shall  protect  from  wear  at  the 
same  time  that  we  leave  entirely  to  nature  every  other 


FiG.  62.— Groove  for  Charlier  shoe  formed  by  cutting  away  strip  of  wall. 

part  of  the  hoof — sole,  frog  and  bars.  This  seems  emin- 
ently simple  and  logical,  but  it  is  easy  to  show  that  it  is 
more  plausible  than  true.  First,  I  would  point  out  that 
the  wall  only  is  not  the  natural  sustaining  structure  of 
the  hoof;  the  wall  and  the  sole  at  its  connection  with  the  wall  is. 
Next,  I  deny  that  the  Charlier  system  does  "  leave  entirely 
to  nature  every  other  part  of  the  hoof."    In  cutting  away 


Fig,  63. — Section  of  Charlier  shoe  on  foot. 

the  wall  from  the  sole  to  affix  the  shoe,  the  natural  func- 
tion of  the  sole  is  seriously  interfered  with,  and  the  bear- 
ing on  the  wall,  which  ought  to  be  partially  distributed 
over  the  arch  of  the  sole,  is  limited  to  the  wall.  It  is 
claimed  that  when  the  foot  has  had  time  to  grow,  the 


FITTING  AND    APPLICATION   OF   SHOES.  87 

sole  will  be  found  on  a  level  with  the  shoe,  and  thus 
directly  sharing  in  the  weight  sustaining  function. 
I  have  examined  many  feet  shod  by  Charlier  specialists, 
and  have  never  yet  seen  the  sole  of  a  hind  foot  level  with 
the  shoe  three  days  after  the  shoeing.  Only  once  have 
I  seen  the  sole  of  the  fore  foot  level  with  the  shoe  after  a 
week's  wear.  I  am  often  apologetically  told,  "  Well,  it- 
is  not  quite  in  wear,  but  it  is  not  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
below  the  surface  of  the  shoe."  Quite  so,  it  is  nearly  in 
wear,  but  if  not  actually  in  wear,  what  becomes  of  the 
princij)le  ?  The  sole  is  not  directly  in  wear,  and  bearing 
is  confined  to  the  wall.  As  to  the  frog,  the  Charlier 
affords  no  greater  use  to  it  than  any  other  shoe  of  a 
similar  thickness,   unless,    instead  of  being  placed   on 


Fig.  64.— Groove  for  modified  or  short  Charlier. 

sound,  firm  horn,  it  be  dangerously  let  down  into  the 
hoof  so  that  its  edge  approaches  very  closely  to  the  sen- 
sitive foot.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  arrive  at  the  truth 
as  to  the  signifiance  of  the  phrase  "  embedding  or  letting 
down"  the  shoe  of  the  Charlier  system.  At  one  time  we 
are  assured  that  "the  shoe  is  not  sunk,  the  sole  is  per- 
mitted to  grow  up."  When  this  is  so,  very  little  positive 
objection  to  the  system  can  be  taken,  because  the  shoe 
then  rests  at  the  same  level  on  firm  horn  as  does  any 
other  narrow  shoe;  but  then  the  frog  takes  no  better 
bearing  than  in  other  systems,  and  the  superfluous 
growth  of  horn  on  the  sole  is  of  no  value.  When  the 
shoe  is  really  "  let  down  "  of  course  the  frog  does  receive- 
increased  pressure — it  is  forced  to  share  with  the  wall 


88 


THE  ART  OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


the  primary  function  of  sustaining  weight  instead  of,  as 
in  nature,  taking  only  a  secondary  share  of  such  action. 
It  does  this  at  the  expense  of  a  shoe  placed  so  close  to  the 
''quick"  that  if  the  "upper  and  inner  border  of  iron  be 
not  bevelled  off,  immediate  lameness  results.  When  the 
Charlier  shoe  was  first  introduced,  it  was  applied  the 
full  length  of  the  foot,  but  it  was  found  that  when 
thinned  by  wear,  the  heels  spread  and  led  to  injury  of 
the  opposite  leg  or  to  its  being  trodden  off.     Now  the 


Fig.  65.— a  Tip  laid  on,  not  let  down. 

Charlier  is  only  applied  like  a  tip  round  the  front  portioa 
of  the  surface  of  the  foot,  and  it  therefore  partakes  of 
some  of  the  advantages  I  have  credited  to  tips.  It  is  a 
very  light  shoe  and  only  requires  small  nails  to  fix  it 
securely,  but  as  the  shoe  is  only  the  width  of  the  wall, 
the  nails  have  to  be  driven  solely  in  the  wall,  and  their 
position  is  open  to  the  objection  applying  to  all  too  fine 
nailing.  The  disadvantages  of  the  Charlier  are  its  being 
"let  down  "  too  near  the  quick,  its  limited  bearing,  and 
its  fine  nail  holes;  the  advantages  are  the  lightness  and 
the  freedom  given  to  the  back  of  the  foot,  both  of  which 
are  attainable  with  a  narrow  tip  not  let  down.  One  very 
apparent  effect  resulting  from  the  use  of  the  Charlier 


FITTING  AND   APPLICATION  OF  SHOES.  89 

system  is  tlie  alteration  in  tlie  action  of  tlie  liorse.  All 
knee  action  is  lost,  and  some  horses  go  decidedly  tender, 
Avliilst  others  acquire  a  low,  shooting  stride,  which  is  cer- 
tainly not  in  accordance  with  our  notior?E  of  good  free 
locomotion. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

t 

"Roughing.'* 

In  winter,  ice,  snow  and  frost  render  roads  slippery,. 
and  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some  arrangement  whereby^ 
horses  may  have  the  greatest  security  of  foot-hold.  In 
countries  such  as  Canada  or  Russia,  where  a  regular 
winter  sets  in  at  a  tolerably  uniform  date  and  continues 
without  intermission  for  some  months,  it  is  easier  to 
adopt  a  good  system  of  "roughing'*  than  in  Great 
Britain.  There,  on  a  thick  layer  of  ice  or  snow,  sharp- 
projections  on  the  shoes  cut  into  the  surface  and  afford 
foot-hold.  The  edge  of  the  projections  is  not  soon 
blunted,  and  when  once  properly  placed,  their  duration 
is  as  long  as  the  time  desirable  for  retaining  the  shoe. 
Here,  very  different  conditions  obtain.  Sometimes  a 
week  or  two  of  frost  and  snow  may  prevail,  but  more 
frequently  the  spells  of  wintry  weather  are  counted  by 
days.  Two  or  three  days  of  frost  and  then  two  or  three 
days  of  mud  and  slush,  to  be  followed  by  either  dry, 
hard  roads  or  a  return  of  ice  and  snow,  is  our  usual 
winter.  We  require  during  this  time  to  provide  for 
occasional  days,  or  more  rarely  for  weeks,  of  frost-bound 
roads.  Our  horses'  shoes  wear  about  a  month  and  then 
require  replacing  by  new  ones.  When  roads  are  hard 
and  dry,  we  want  no  sharp  ridges  or  points  about  our 
horses'  shoes,  and  yet  we  must  always  be  able  at  twenty- 
four  hours'  notice  to  supply  some  temporary  arrange- 
ment which  will  ensure  foot-hold. 

The  necessity  for  "roughing  "  and  the  evil  effects  of 
continuing  to  work  unroughed  horses  on  slippery,  frost- 
bound  roads  is  demonstrated  in  London  every  winter  by 
a  very  significant  fact.  If,  after  three  days  of  ice  and 
snow,  anyone  will  visit  a  horse-slaughterer's  yard,  he 
will  find  the  place  full  of  dead  horses  which  have  fallen 
in  the  streets  and  suffered  incurable  or  fatal  injury.  A 
sudden  and  severe  attack  of  ice  and  snow  half  paralyses^ 

90 


ROUGHING.  91 

the  horse  traffic  of  a  large  town  for  a  day  or  two,  and 
many  owners  will  sooner  keep  their  horses  in  the  stable 
than  go  to  the  expense  of  having  them  roughed.  The 
loss  in  civil  life  from  unpreparedness  for  ice  and  snow  is 
very  serious,  but  the  loss  which  has  fallen  upon  military 
movements  from  similar  neglect  is  appalling.  Napo- 
leon's rout  from  Moscow  in  1812,  Bourbaki's  flight  into 
Switzerland  in  1871,  and  the  Danish  retreat  during  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  war  in  1865  are  terrible  instances  of 
the  frightful  loss  sustained  when  horses  are  unable  to 
keep  on  their  feet  at  a  walk,  let  alone  drag  guns  and 
wagons  over  an  ice-covered  surface. 

A  well-managed  stud  of  horses  which  is  required  to 
face  all  weather  and  to  work  every  day  through  an 
English  winter  should,  from  December  1st  to  March  1st, 
be  shod  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  easily  and  speedily 
provided  with  mechanism  which  will  afford  secure  foot- 
hold. This  may  be  effected  by  the  use  of  moveable  steel 
"roughs"  or  "sharps."  Of  course  the  cost  is  the 
argument  against  them,  but  this  should  be  considered  in 
view  of  the  probability  or  certainty  of  loss  which  will 
follow  from  neglect.  If  we  allow  common  humanity  to 
animals  to  enter  into  the  consideration,  economy  will  be 
served  by  adopting  a  well  arranged  system  of  roughing. 
Every  good  horseman  appreciates  the  enormity  of  over- 
loading, but  neglect  of  roughing  causes  just  as  mucli 
cruelty.  A  horse  that  on  a  good  road  can  properly  draw 
a  ton  would  be  considered  over-loaded  with  two  tons, 
and  his  struggles  to  progress  would  at  once  attract  atten- 
tion. The  same  animal  with  half  a  ton  on  an  ice-covered, 
surface  would  suffer  more  exhaustion,  fatigue  and 
fright,  and  run  more  risk  of  fatal  injury  than  in  the 
case  of  the  over-loading,  bat  his  owner,  who  would 
indignantly  repudiate  the  one  condition,  will  designedly 
incur  the  other. 

Probably  this  is  only  thoughtlessness,  but  it  is  a- 
reflection  on  the  prudence  of  a  manager,  and  certainly 
not  flattering  to  the  feelings  or  intelligence  of  a  man. 

There  are  many  ways  of  providing  foot-hold  for  a> 
horse  on  ice  and  snow.     The  most  simj^le  and  temporary 


93 


THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


proceeding  is  to  use  frost-nails.     Fig.  66  shows  various 
sizes  and  shapes  of  these  articles. 

They  are  not  driven  through  the  hoof  like  ordinarj- 
nails,  but  through  the  shoe  only,  which  is  prepared  for 
their  reception  at  the  time  of  fitting.  A  shoe  to  carry 
frost-nails  is  fitted  c,  little  wider  than  usual  at  the  heels 
and  has  at  its  extremities,  or  more  often  at  its  outer 
extremities,  countersunk  holes  stamped  and  directed,  out- 
wards, so  that  the  frost-nail  can  be  safely  driven 
through  by  anyone,  and  its  shank  turned  down  over  the 


Fro.  66.— Various  frost-nails. 


shoe.  There  is  a  difficulty  in  firmly  securing  tliem, 
they  are  apt  to  work  loose  and  then  become  bent  and 
useless.  If  used  on  the  inside  heel  of  a  shoe,  they  consti- 
tute a  danger  to  the  opposite  leg,  should  they  bend  and 
protrude  from  under  the  shoe.  As  a  temporary  provi- 
sion against  a  sudden  frost  or  fall  of  snow,  they  are 
useful,  but  they  are  only  a  make-shift. 


ROUGHING.  93 

The  more  permanent  and  effective  system  of  ''  rough- 
ing "  consists  in  removing  the  shoes  and  turning  down  a 
'charp  chisel  projection  at  the  heels.  In  very  bad  weather, 
a  projection  edge  is  also  laid  across  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 

The  diagrams  show  the  method  of  "sharping"  a 
front  and  hind  shoe  at  the  heels  only.  The  hind  shoe, 
having  calkins,  is  not  much  altered.  The  smith  simply 
converts  the  square  calkin  into  a  sharp-edged  one.  The 
fore  shoe,  having  no  calkins,  is  turned  down  at  the  heels 
to  afford  enough  iron  to  form  the  "sharp."  But  this 
shortens  the  shoe,  and  if  it  be  rej^eated  two  or  three 
times,  as  it  often  is,  the  bearing-surface  is  spoiled,  and 
the  slightest  carelessness  in  fitting   the  shoe  causes  a 


-Heels  of  fore  and  hind  shoes,  sharped . 


bruised  heel,  "  Roughing"  is  generally  done  in  a  hurry. 
A  dozen  horses  reach  the  farrier's  shop  at  one  time  and 
all  desire  to  return  to  work  with  as  little  delay  as  pos- 
sible. The  work  is  perforce  hurried  through,  careful 
fitting  cannot  be  done,  and  bad-footed  horses  suffer 
accordingly.  The  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  67  show  the 
original  length  of  shoe,  and  the  shortening  which  results 
from  a  second  roughing. 

All  horse-owners  know  how  many  lame  horses  result 
from  the  repeated  roughings  necessitated  by  a  week  or 
two  of  wintry  weather.  Some  of  this  is  inevitable  from 
the  rush  and  hurry  which  cannot  be  prevented.  Valuable 
horses  with  weak  feet  should  not  be  submitted  to  any 
such  risk.  They  should  be  shod  with  removable  sharps. 
The  mere  fact  of  removing  a  horse's  shoes  perhaps  five 
or  six  times  in  a  month  must  injure  the  hoof.  Add  to 
this  the  shortening  of  the  shoe,  the  raising  of  the  heel  by 
the  roughing,  and  the  irregular  bearing  due  to  hurried 


94 


THE   ART    OF   HORSESHOEING. 


fitting,  and   we  have   conditions   wliicli   only    tlie    very 
strongest  feet  can  endure  without  serious  injury. 

For  heavy  draught  liorses,  and  for  all  where  the- 
roads  are  hilly,  the  toes  as  well  as  the  heels  must  he 
*' sharped"  when  ice  and  snow  are  firm  on  the  surface. 
Fig.  08  shows  this  arrangement  at  the  toe.     The  remov-- 


FiG.  68 —Toe  sharp. 

able  steel  "sharps,"  of  which  I  have  spoken,  are  cer- 
tainly the  least  objectionable  method  of  providing  foot- 
hold in  winter.  They  are  made  in  various  sizes  to  suit 
all  kinds  of  shoes.  They  vary  in  shape  somewhat,  but 
their  form  is  more  a  matter  of  fancy  than  utility.     One 


Fig.  69. — Removable  steel  sharp. 

in  each  heel  of  a  shoe  is  the  usual  number  used,  but  if 
snow  and  ice  are  plentiful  and  the  roads  hilly,  two  addi- 
tional ''sharps"  may  be  placed  at  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 

At  the  time  of  fitting  the  shoes,  holes  are  made  bjr 
first  punching  a  round  hole  through  the  heels — and 
through  the  toe  if  desired;  then  the  hole  is  "tapped"  and 
a  thread  formed  to  fit  it  in  the  shank  of  the  sharp  which 
is  to  fill  it.     If  the  sharps  are  not  immediately  wanted,.. 


ROUGHING. 


95 


iilie  holes  may  be  filled  with  corks  to  keep  out  the  grit 
^nd  dirt.  When  corks  are  used,  the  wear  of  the  shoe 
causes  a  burr  to  form  round  the  edge  of  the  hole,  and 
before  the  sharp  can  be  screwed  in  a  "tap"  must  be 


Fig.  70.— steel  sharps,  screw. 

worked  into  each  hole  to  clear  the  thread.  One  great 
objection  to  this  method  is  that  as  the  shoe  wears,  it 
becomes  thinner,  and  if  much  worn,  the  shank  of  the 
"sharp"  may  be  too  long,  and  when  screwed  home, 
cause  pressure  upon  the  hoof  and  consequent  lameness. 
To  guard  against  this,  steel  "blanks"  are  used  to  pre- 
serve the  holes,  and  when  a  frost  comes,  they  are 
removed  and  the  "  sharps  "  put  in. 

The  blanks  vary  in  height,  and,  of  course,  those  least 
in  height  are  best  for  the  horse's  action,  but  they  must 
not  be  allowed  to  get  so  worn  that  it  is  impossible  to 
remove  them.     These  blanks  are  shown  below. 


Fig.  71.— Blanks,  screwed. 


The  "tapping"  and  "screwing"  of  shoes  is  expen- 
sive, and  in  small  shops  must  be  done  by  hand.  In.large 
shops,  a  gas  engine  and  a  machine  would  reduce  the  cost 
very  greatly,  and  if  the  system  came  into  general  use, 
this  method  of  providing  against  frost-bound  roads  could 
be  carried  out  at  much  less  cost  than  now.  With  a  view 
to  economy  and  simplicity,  a  sharp  has  been  inventecL 


S6 


THE   ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


wMcli  recxuires  no  screw.  The  shank  may  be  either 
round  or  square.  A  hole  is  iDunched  in  the  heel  of  the 
shoe  and  carefully  gauged  to  the  size  of  the  shank  of  the 
*' sharp."     The   sharp  is  then  put  in  and  a  tap  of  the 


H 

1 — 1 

1 — If 

Fig.  73.— Steel  Sharps  and  Blank,  Plug  shanks. 

iiammer  secures  it.  The  difficulty  is  to  get  the  hole  in 
the  shoe  and  the  shank  of  the  sharp  of  corresponding 
form  and  size.  When  this  is  done,  the  sharp  keeps  its 
place  and  is  not  difficult  to  remove.  Too  often,  however, 
they  are  not  uniform,  and  then  the  sharp  falls  out  or 
sometimes  cannot  be  removed.  When  the  holes  are 
drilled  instead  of  punched,  the  fit  is  more  exact,  but  this 
only  applies  to  those  with  a  round  shank.  A  slight  taper 
is  given  both  to  the  hole  and  the  shank  of  the  "  sharp." 
As  with  the  screw  sharps,  so  with  these,  blanks  are  used 
to  keep  the  holes  open  until  the  road-surface  requires  the 
sharp. 


Fig.  73.— Steel  Traps  for  screwing  shoes. 

No  sharps  should  be  left  in  shoes  when  the  horses; 
are  stabled  at  night,  as  serious  injuries  to  the  coronet 
may  result  from  a  tread  by  the  opposite  foot.  The 
coachman    or    horse-keeper    must    be  supplied  with  a- 


ROUGHING.  97 

spanner  to  remove  the  screws,  and  witli  a  tajD  to  clear  the 
holes  if  blanks  are  not  nsed. 

For  roads  not  badly  covered  with  snow  and  ice,  suffi- 
cient security  is  afforded  by  some  forms  of  india-rubber 
pads,  which  will  be  described  in  a  future  chapter. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Injuries  from  Shoeing. 

Even  with  the  most  careful  farrier  injury  may  occur 
during  shoeing,  or  may  arise  as  the  result  of  the  opera- 
tion. Sometimes  the  foot,  from  its  condition  or  form, 
renders  an  accident  possible,  and  it  may  be  so  diseased, 
or  defective,  as  to  render  shoeing  with  safety  very 
improbable.  Sometimes  the  shoe  is  to  blame,  and  some- 
times the  nail  or  clip.  A  few  words  about  each  of  the 
common  injuries  may  be  useful  as  helps  to  their  avoid- 
ance or  as  guides  to  their  remedying. 

From  Nails  two  kinds  of  injury  may  result.  The 
most  common  arises  from  the  nail  being  driven  too  near 
the  sensitive  j^arts,  and  is  known  as  a  hind.  The  nail  does 
not  really  penetrate  the  sensitive  foot,  but  is  so  near  as 
to  press  unduly  uj^on  it.  This  condition  causes  lameness, 
which  is  generally  not  noticed  till  a  day  or  two  after  the 
shoeing.  It  is  readily  detected  by  the  farrier  on  remov- 
ing tlie  shoe  and  trying  all  the  tracks  of  the  nails  in  the 
hoof  by  pressure  with  pincers.  When  the  lameness  is 
slight,  removal  of  the  nail  and  one  or  two  days'  rest  are 
all  that  is  required.  When  the  lameness  is  great,  it  may 
be  suspected  that  the  injury  has  caused  the  formation  of 
matter  within  the  hoof.  This  must,  of  course,  be  allowed 
to  escape,  and  the  services  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  are 
advisable. 

Any  neglect  in  these  cases,  such  as  working  the 
horse  after  lameness  has  appeared,  or  delay  in  removing 
the  offending  nail,  may  lead  to  very  serious  changes  in 
the  foot,  or  even  to  death  of  the  horse. 

Another  injury  caused  by  nails  is  from  a  direct 
puncture  of  the  sensitive  foot.  This  may  be  slight,  as  in 
cases  where  the  farrier  in  driving  the  nail  misdirects  it 
and  so  stabs  the  sensitive  parts,  but  immediately  with- 
draws the  nail,  knowing  what  has  happened.  The  lame- 
ness resulting  from  this  is'  usually  slight.     Very  much 

98 


INJURIES   FROM   SHOEING.  99 

more  serious  is  the  lameness  resulting  from  a  nail  Avliick 
pierces  tlie  sensitive  foot  and  is  not  recognized  at  once 
l)j  the  farrier.  As  a  rule,  lameness  is  immediate,  and 
should  the  horse  perform  a  journey  before  the  nail  is 
removed,  serious  damage  is  certain  to  follow. 

AVant  of  skill  in  driving  a  nail  is  not  always  the 
chief  cause  of  "  binding  ''  or  "  pricking  "  a  horse.  More 
often  than  not  the  form  and  position  of  the  nail-holes  is 
the  primary  cause,  for  if  the  nail-holes  in  the  shoe  are 
too  "coarse"  or  badlj^  pitched,  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
safely  drive  nails  through  them.  Sometimes  the  nails 
are  defective,  and  this  was  much  more  common  when. 
nails  were  all  hand- made.  Bad  iron  or  bad  workman- 
ship led  to  nails  splitting  within  the  hoof,  and  whilst 
one  half  came  out  through  the  wall,  the  other  portion 
turned  in  and  penetrated  the  sensitive  foot,  causing  a 
most  dangerous  injury.  The  best  brands  of  machine- 
mado  nails,  now  generally  used,  are  remarkably  free 
from  this  defect. 

No  lameness  resulting  from  injury  by  a  nail  should 
be  neglected.  If  detected  and  attended  to  at  once,  few 
cases  are  serious.  If  neglected,  the  very  simplest  may 
end  in  permanent  damage  to  the  horse.  By  treating 
these  accidents  as  unpardonable,  horse-owners  rather 
encourage  farriers  to  disguise  them  or  to  not  acknowledge 
them.  If  the  workman  would  always  be  careful  to 
search  for  injury,  and  when  he  found  it  acknowledge  the 
accident,  many  simple  cases  would  cease  to  develop  into 
serious  ones.  Frank  acknowledgment  is  always  best, 
but  is  less  likely  to  take  place  when  it  is  followed  by 
unqualified  blame  than  when  treated  as  an  accident  which 
may  have  been  accompanied  by  unavoidable  difficulties. 

From  Clips  lameness  may  arise.  A  badly  drawn 
olip  is  not  easily  laid  level  and  flat  on  the  wall.  When 
hammered  down  excessively,  it  causes  pressure  on  the 
sensitive  foot,  and  lameness.  When  side  clips  are  used — 
one  each  side  of  the  foot — it  is  not  difficult  to  cause  lame- 
ness by  driving  them  too  tightly  against  the  wall.  They 
then  hold  the  hoof  as  if  in  a  vise.     When  shoes  get  loose 


100  THE   AKT   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

or  are  partially  torn  off,  the  horse  may  tread  on  the  clip, 
and  if  it  be  high  and  sharp,  very  dangerous  wounds 
result. 

From  the  Shoe,  injury  results  from  any  uneven 
pressure,  especially  when  the  horny  covering  of  the  foot 
is  weak  and  thin.  The  horn  becomes  broken  and  split, 
and  the  bearing  for  a  shoe  is  more  or  less  spoiled.  Flat 
feet  are  liable  to  be  bruised  by  the  pressure  of  the  inner 
circumference  of  the  shoe  at  the  toe.  Lameness  from 
this  cause  is  easily  detected  by  removing  the  shoe  and 
testing  the  hoof  with  the  pincers.  If  attended  to  at  once, 
and  the  bearing  of  the  shoe  removed  from  the  part  little 
injury  results.  If  neglected,  inflammatory  changes  in 
the  sensitive  parts  are  sure  to  arise. 

Corns  in  horses  are  due  to  bruising  of  the  angle  of 
the  sole  by  the  heel  of  the  shoe.  A  wide  open  foot  with 
low  heels  is  most  likely  to  suffer,  but  any  foot  may  be 
injured.  The  most  common  seat  of  injury  is  the  inner 
heel  of  a  fore-foot.  Even  a  proj)erly  fitted  shoe  may 
cause  a  corn  if  retained  too  long  upon  a  foot,  as  then, 
owing  to  the  growth  of  the  hoof,  its  extremity  is  carried 
forward  from  beneath  the  wall  so  as  to  press  upon  the 
sole.  A  short  shoe,  fitted  too  close  on  the  inside,  is  the 
most  common  cause  of  corn.  To  guard  against  the  shoe 
being  trodden  on  by  the  opposite  foot,  the  inside  is 
generally  fitted  close,  and  to  guard  against  being  trodden 
on  by  the  hind  foot  it  is  often  fitted  short.  Thus  to  pre- 
vent accidents  of  one  kind  methods  are  adopted  which, 
being  a  little  overdone,  lead  to  injury  of  another.  A  not 
uncommon  error  in  the  preparation  of  the  foot  for 
shoeing  may  also  lead  to  the  production  of  the  so-called 
corn.  If  the  wall  on  the  inside  heel  be  lowered  more 
than  it  should  be,  the  horn  of  the  sole  is  left  higher  than 
the  wall,  and  then  a  level  shoe  presses  unevenly  upon  the 
higher  part. 

A  corn,  be  it  remembered,  is  not  a  tumor  or  a  growth, 
it  is  merely  a  bruise  of  the  sensitive  foot  under  the  horn 
of  the  sole.  It  shows  itself  by  staini)ig  the  horn  red,  just 
as  a  bruise  on  the  human  body  shows  a  staining  of  tho 


INJURIES    FROM    SHOEING. 


ICl 


skin  above  it  To  "cut  out  a  corn  "  witli  the  idea  of 
removing  it  is  simply  an  ignorant  x^roceeding.  If  a  corn 
"be  slight,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  take  off  the  pressure 
of  the  shoe,  and  this  is  assisted  by  removing  a  thin  slice 
or  two  of  horn  at  the  part.  When  the  injury  is  very 
great,  matter  may  be  formed  under  the  horn,  and,  of 
course,  must  be  let  out  by  removal  of  the  horn  over  it. 
Provided  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  matter  has 
formed,  a  corn,  i.  e.,  the  bruised  and  discolored  horn, 
should  not  be  dug  out  in  the  ruthless  manner  so  com- 
monly adopted.  Cutting  away  all  the  horn  of  the  sole  at 
the  heels  leaves  the  wall  without  any  support.  When 
the  shoe  rests  upon  the  wall  it  is  unable  to  sustain  the 
weight  without  yielding,  and  thus  an  additional  cause  of 
irritation  and  soreness  is  manufactured.  The  excessive 
paring  of  corns  is  the  chief  reason  of  the  difficulty  of 
getting  permanently  rid  of  them.  The  simplest  device  for 
taking  all  pressure  off  a  corn  is  to  cut  off  an  inch  and  a 
half  of  the  inner  heel  of  the  shoe.  With  the  three-quar- 
ter shoe  (Fig.  74)  a  horse  will  soon  go  sound,  and  his  foot 


Fig.  74.— Three-quarter  Shoe, 


will  then  resume  its  healthy  state.  The  saying  ' '  once  a 
corn,  always  a  corn  "  is  not  true,  but  it  is  true  tliat  a 
"bruised  heel  is  tender  and  liable  to  bruise  again,  from, 
very  slight  unevenness  of  pressure,  for  at  least  three- 


102  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

moiitlis.  All  tliat  is  necessary  is  care  in  fitting  and 
abstention  from  removal  of  too  much  horn  at  the  part. 
Of  course,  when  the  degree  of  lameness  is  such  as  to 
suggest  that  matter  is  formed,  the  horn  must  be  cut 
away,  so  as  to  afford  an  exit  for  it,  but  the  majority  of 
corns  are  detected  long  before  the  stage  of  suppuration 
has  resulted  from  a  bruise. 

A  Burnt  Sole. — In  fitting  a  hot  shoe  to  a  foot  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  sensitive  parts  under  the 
sole  at  the  toe  are  injured  by  heat.  This  is  most  likely 
to  occur  with  a  foot  on  which  the  horn  is  thin,  especially 
if  it  also  be  flat  or  convex.  Burning  the  sole  is  an  injury 
which  must  be  put  clown  to  negligence.  It  does  not 
occur  from  the  shoe  being  too  hot,  but  from  its  being  too 
long  retained,  and  may  be  expected  when  the  fireman  is 
seen  holding  a  dull-red  hot  shoe  on  to  a  foot,  with  a 
doorman  assisting  to  "bed  it  in"  by  pressing  it  to  the 
foot  with  a  rasp.  When  the  heat  of  a  shoe  penetrates 
through  the  horn  with  sufficient  intensity  to  blister  the 
sensitive  parts  of  the  foot,  great  pain  and  lameness 
result.  In  many  cases,  separation  of  the  sole  from  the 
'"  quick  "  takes  place,  and  some  weeks  i)ass  before  the 
horse  can  resume  work. 

Treads  are  injuries  to  the  coronet  caused  by  the 
shoe  of  tlie  opposite  foot,  and  are  usually  found  on  the 
front  or  inside  of  the  hind  feet.  The  injury  may  take 
the  form  of  a  bruise  and  the  skin  remain  unbroken,  it 
may  ax3pear  as  a  superficial  jagged  wound,  or  it  may  take 
the  form  of  a  tolerably  clean  cut,  in  which  case,  although 
at  first  bleeding  is  very  free,  ultimate  recovery  is  rapid. 
Bruises  on  the  coronet — just  where  hair  and  hoof  meet — 
are  always  to  be  looked  upon  as  serious.  The  slighter 
cases,  after  a  few  days'  pain  and  lameness,  pass  away, 
leaving  only  a  little  line  showing  where  the  hoof  has 
separated  from  the  skin.  This  separation  is  not  serious 
unless  a  good  deal  of  swelling  has  accompanied  it,  and 
even  then  only  time  is  required  to  effect  a  cure.  In  more 
serious  cases,  an  extensive  slough  takes  place,  and  the 
coronary  band,  Avhich  secretes  the  wall,  may  be  damaged. 


IN  JURIES  k  FROM   SHOEING.  103 

The  worst  cases  are  tliose  in  wliicli  deep  seated  abscesses 
occur,  as  they  often  terminate  in  a  "qnittor."  The 
farrier  should  always  recognize  a  tread  as  possibly  dan- 
gerous and  obtain  X)rofessional  advice. 

It  is  a  common  custom  to  rasp  away  the  horn  of  the 
wall  immediately  beneath  any  injury  of  the  coronet,  but 
it  is  a  useless  proceeding,  which  weakens  the  hoof  and 
does  no  good  to  the  inflamed  tissues  above  or  beneath. 

Treads  are  most  common  in  horses  shod  with  heavy 
shoes  and  high  calkins — a  fact  which  suggests  that  a  low, 
square  calkin  and  a  shoe  fitted  not  too  wide  at  the  heels 
is  a  possible  preventive. 

"Cutting"  or  "Brushing." 

By  these  terms  is  meant  the  injury  to  the  inside  of 
the  fetlock  joint  which  results  from  bruising  by  the 
opposite  foot.  Possibly  some  small  proportion  of  such 
injuries  are  traceable  to  the  system  of  shoeing,  to  the 
form  of  shoe,  or  to  the, action  of  the  horse.  They  are, 
with  few  exceptions,  the  direct  result  of  want  of  condi- 
tion in  the  horse  and  are  almost  confined  to  young  horses, 
old,  weak  horses,  or  animals  that  have  been  submitted  to 
some  excessively  long  and  tiring  journey.  The  first  thing 
a  horse-owner  does  when  his  horse  "  brushes  "  is  to  send 
him  to  the  farrier  to  have  his  shoes  altered.  In  half  the 
cases  there  is  nothing  wrong  with  the  shoes,  and  all  that 
is  required  is  a  little  patience  till  the  horse  gains  hard 
condition.  At  the  commencement  of  a  coaching  season, 
half  the  horses  "  cut  "  their  fetlocks,  no  matter  how  they 
are  shod.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  none  of  them  touch 
the  opposite  joint,  with  perhaps  a  few  exceptions  afflicted 
with  defective  formation  of  limb,  or  constitutions  that 
baffle  all  attempts  at  getting  hard  condition.  The  same 
thing  is  seen  in  cab  and  omnibus  stock.  All  the  new 
horses  "cut"  their  legs  for  a  few  weeks.  The  old  ones^ 
with  a  few  exceptions,  work  in  any  form  of  shoe,  but 
never  touch  their  joints.  They  "cut"  when  they  are 
out  of  condition — when  their  limbs  soon  tire;  but  they 
never  "cut"  when  they  are  in  condition — when  they 
have  firm  control  of  the  action  of  their  limbs.    There  are. 


104 


THE  ART  OP  HORSE- SHOEING. 


however,  a  few  liorses  that  are  always  a  source  of  trouble, 
and  there  are  conditions  of  shoeing  which  assist  or  pre- 
vent the  injury.  The  hind  legs  are  the  most  frequently 
affected,  and  this  because  of  the  calkins.  Many  horses 
will  cease  "cutting"  at  once  if  the  calkins  of  the  shoes 
be  removed  and  a  level  shoe  adopted.  There  are  certain 
forms  of  shoe  which  are  supposed  to  be  specially  suitable 
as  preventives.  A  great  favorite  is  the  "  knocked-up 
shoe,"  i.  e.,  a  shoe  with  no  nails  on  the  inside,  except  at 
the  toe,  and  a  skate-shaped  inner  branch. 


Fig.  75.—"  Knocked-up  "  Shoes— with  and  without  an  inner  Calkin. 


These  shoes  are  fitted  not  only  close  to  the  inner 
border  of  the  wall,  but  within  it,  and  the  horn  at  the  toe 
is  then  rasped  off  level  with  the  shoe.  Whether  they  are 
of  any  use  is  a  question,  but  there  is  no  question  of  the 
harm  they  do  to  the  foot.  Some  farriers  are  partial  to  a 
three-quarter  shoe — one  from  which  a  couple  of  inches  of 
the  inside  heel  has  been  removed.  Some  tliicken  the  out- 
side toe,  some  the  inside  toe.  Some  raise  one  heel,  some 
the  other,  and  some  profess  to  have  a  principle  of  fitting 
the  shoe  based  upon  the  formation  of  the  horse's  limb 
and  the  peculiarity  of  his  action.  If  in  practice  success 
attended  these  methods,  I  should  advise  their  adoption, 
but  my  experience  is  that  numerous  farriers  obtain  a 
special  name  for  shoeing  horses  that  "  cut,"  when  their 


INJURIES  frOxM:  shoeing. 


105 


methods,  applied  to  quite  similar  cases,  are  as  antagonis- 
tic as  the  poles.  A  light  shoe  without  calkins  has  at  any 
rate  negative  properties— it  will  not  assist  the  horse  to 
injure  himself.  For  all  the  other  forms  and  shapes  I 
have  a  profound  contempt,  but  as  people  will  have 
changes,  and  as  the  most  marked  departure  from  the 
ordinary  seems  to  give  the  greatest  satisfaction,  it  is 
perhaps  "  good  business  "  to  supply  what  is  appreciated. 
The  two  great  cures  for  "cutting"  are — regular 
work  and  good,  old  beans.  When  a  man  drives  a  horse 
forty  miles  in  a  day  at  a  fast  pace  he,  of  course,  blames 
the  farrier  for  all  damage  to  the  fetlocks.  He  is  merely 
illogical. 

Over-Reaching. 

This  is  an  injury  to  the  heel — generally  the  inner — 
of  a  front  foot.  The  heel  is  struck  by  the  inner  border 
of  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe.  Over-reach  occurs  at  a 
gallop  in  this  country,  but  is  seen  in  America  as  the 


Fig.  76. — Toe  of  hind  shoe  showing  the  edge  which  cuts  the  heel  of  fore-foot. 

result  of  a  mis-step  in  the  fast  trotters.  An  over-reach 
can  only  occur  when  the  fore- foot  is  raised  from  the 
ground  and  the  hind  foot  reaches  right  into  the  hollow  of 
the  fore-foot.  When  the  fore  and  hind  feet  in  this  posi- 
tion separate,  the  inner  border  of  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe 
catches  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot  and  cuts  off  a  slice.  This 
cut  portion  often  hangs  as  a  flap,  and  when  it  does,  tha 
attachment  is  always  at  the  back,  showing  that  the 
injury  was  not  from  behind  forwards,  as  it  would  be  if 


106 


THE  ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


caused  by  a  direct  blow,  but  from  before  backwards;  irt 
other  words,  by  a  dragging  action  of  the  hind  foot  as  it 
leaves  the  front  one.  An  over-reach  then  may  result, 
either  from  the  fore-limb  being  insufficiently  extended, 
or  from  the  hind-limb  being  over  extended. 

The  prevention  of  this  injury  is  effected  by  rounding 
off  the  inside  edge  of  the  hind  shoe  as  shown  below. 


Fig. 


-Toe  of  hind  shoe  showing  rounded  inside  border. 


Speedy-Cut. 

This  is  an  injury  inflicted  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  knee  joint  by  a  blow  from  the  toe 
of  the  shoe  of  the  opposite  foot.  It  occurs  at  a  trot, 
and  very  seldom,  excex)t  when  a  horse  is  tired  or  over- 
paced.  A  horse  that  has  once  "  speedy-cut"  is  apt  to  do 
so  again,  and  it  may  cause  him  to  fall.  Such  horses 
should  be  shod  "  close  "  on  the  inside,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  heel  of  the  foot  which  strikes  should  be 
kept  low.  In  some  cases,  a  three-quarter  shoe  (see 
Fig.  74)  on  the  offending  foot  prevents  injury. 

"Forging:"  or  "Clacking." 

This  is  not  an  injury,  but  an  annoyance.  It  is  the 
noise  made  by  the  striking  of  the  hind  shoe  against  the 
front  as  the  horse  is  trotting.  Horses  "  forge  "  when 
young  and  green,  when  out  of  condition  or  tired.  As  a 
rule,  a  horse  that  makes  this  noise  is  a  slovenly  goer,  and 
will  cease  to  annoy  when  he  gets  strength  and  goes  up  to 
his  bit.     Shoeing  makes  a  difference,  and  in  some  cases 


INJURIES   FROM   SHOEING.  107 

at  once  stops  it.     The  i^art  of  the  front  shoe  struck  is  the 
inner  "border  round  the  toe.     (Fig.  78.)    The  part  of  the 


Fig.  78.— Toe  of  fore  shoe.  The  arrows  mark  the  place  struck  in  "  forging." 

hind  shoe  that  strikes  is  the  outer  border  at  the  inside 
and  outside  toe.     (Fig.  79.) 


Fig.  79.— Toe  of  hind  shoe  showing  the  edge  which  strikes  the  fore  shoe. 


Fig.  80.-Toe  of  fore  shoe  with  inner  border  bevelled  off. 

To  alter  the  fore  shoe,  round  off  the  inner  border;  or 
use  a  shoe  with  no  inner  border,  such  as  the  concave 


108  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


hunting  shoe.  To  alter  tlie  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  is  useless, 
but  by  using  a  level  shoe  without  calkins  some  advan- 
tage is  gained.  A  so-called  "diamond-toed"  shoe  has 
been  recommended.  It  is  not  advisable,  as  it  does  no 
goodj  except  by  causing  its  point  to  strike  the  sole  of  the 
front  foot.  If  by  such  a  dodge  the  sound  is  got  rid  of,  it 
is  only  by  running  the  risk  of  injuring  the  foot. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Shoeing  Bad  Feet. 

Any  average  farrier  can  shoe  without  immediate 
harm  a  good,  well- formed  foot  that  has  a  thick  covering 
of  horn,  but  when  the  horn  is  deficient  in  quantity  or 
quality,  injury  soon  takes  place  if  a  badly  fitted  shoe  be 
applied.  There  are  feet  which  from  disease  or  accident 
or  bad  shoeing  have  become,  more  or  less,  permanently 
damaged.  Some  are  seriously  altered  in  shape.  Some 
are  protected  only  by  an  unhealthy  horn,  and  some  show 
definite  changes  which  cause  weakness  at  a  special  part. 
These  are  the  feet  which  really  test  the  art  of  the 
farrier,  for  he  must  know  just  what  to  do  and  what  not 
to  do,  and  must  possess  the  skill  to  practice  what  he 
knows. 

Flat  Feet. — Some  horses  are  born  with  flat  feet, 
others  acquire  them  as  the  result  of  disease.  Too  often 
the  flat  sole  has  another  defect  accompanying  it — low, 
weak  heels.  Such  feet  are  best  shod  with  a  seated  shoe 
so  as  to  avoid  any  uneven  pressure  on  the  sole,  and  the 
shoes  should  always  be  fitted  a  little  longer  than  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  foot,  so  as  to  avoid  any  risk  of 
producing  a  bruise  at  the  heel — in  other  words,  of  causing 
a  corn.  The  seated  shoe  is  not  advisable  on  a  hunter. 
The  concave  shoe  used  for  hunters  has  many  distinct 
advantages  and  only  one  disadvantage  for  a  flat  foot, 
viz.,  that  it  has  a  wide,  flat  foot-surface.  It  may  cause 
an  uneven  pressure  at  the  toe  on  a  flat  sole,  but  this  is 
easily  avoided  by  not  making  it  too  wide;  perhaps  the 
very  worst  thing  to  do  with  a  flat  foot  is  to  try  and  make 
it  look  less  flat  by  paring  it  down.  The  thinner  the  horn 
the  greater  the  chance  of  injury  to  the  sensitive  parts 
under  it,  and  every  injury  tends  to  make  the  sole 
weaker.  Leaving  the  sole  strong  and  thick,  whilst 
fitting  the  shoe  to  avoid  uneven  pressure,  is  the  principle 
of  shoeing  to  be  adopted  with  flat  feet. 

lOS 


110  THE   ART    OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

Convex  Soles.— The  sole  of  tlie  foot  should  be  con- 
cave, but  as  tlie  result  of  disease  many  feet  become  con— 
vex.  This  bulging  or  "  dropping  "  of  the  sole  varies  iii 
degree  from  a  little  more  than  flat  to  an  inch  or  so  below 
the  level  of  the  wall.  When  the  under-surface  of  a 
horse's  foot  resembles  in  form  the  outside  of  a  saucer, 
fitting  a  shoe  becomes  a  Avork  of  art.  Very  often  the 
"wall  is  brittle  and  broken  away,  and  it  is  most  difficult- 
to  find  sufficient  bearing-surface  on  the  foot  for  a  shoe. 
Many  of  these  feet  may  be  safely  shod  with  a  narrow 
shoe  that  rests  only  on  the  wall  and  the  intermediate 
horn  between  the  wall  and  sole.  Such  a  shoe  may, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  foot,  be  five-eighths  or  even 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide.  Its  thickness  is  to  be 
such  as  will  prevent  the  sole  taking  any  direct  bearing 
on  the  ground,  and  sometimes  a  shoe  of  this  form  is 
much  thicker  than  it  is  wide.  The  advantage  of  this 
shoe  is  that  it  is  so  narrow  that  any  bearing  on  the  sole 
is  avoided.  The  disadvantage  is  that  on  rough  roads  the 
sole  may  be  bruised  by  the  flint  or  granite  stones.  When 
the  horn  of  a  "dropped  "  sole  is  A^ery  thin,  or  when  the 
horse  has  to  woi-k  on  roads  covered  with  sharp,  loose 
stones,  some  cover  for  the  sole  is  necessary,  and  the- 
narrow  shoe  is  not  practicable.  To  provide  cover  for  the 
sole,  the  web  of  the  shoe  has  to  be  wide,  and  therefore 

the  foot-surface  of  the  shoe    must   be   seated   out,  so  as  to- 


improper  bearing-surface.         Fig.  81.         A  level  bearing-surface. 


avoid  contact  Avith  the  sole.  Too  often  the  seating  is 
continued  from  the  inner  to  the  outer  border  of  a  shoe, 
so  that  no  le.ve\  bearing-surface  is  provided  for  the  wall 
to  rest  on.  This  kind  of  shoe  is  like  the  hollow  of  a 
saucer,  and,  when  applied  to  a  foot,  is  certain  to  cause 
lameness  sooner  or  later.  Each  time  the  horse  rests  his. 
"weight  on  it  the  hoof  is  compressed  by  the  inclined  sur- 
face of  the  shoe,  which,    instead  of  providing  a  firm 


SHOEING  BAD   FEET. 


Ill 


"bearing-surface,  affords  only  an  ingenious  instrument  of 
torture. 

In  even  fhe  worst  of  tliese  deformed  feet  some  good, 
sound  horn  is  to  be  found  at  the  heels,  where  an  inch  or 
sometimes  two  can  be  utilized  for  level  bearing.  No 
matter  how  much  seating  is  required  at  the  toe  and 
quarters,  the  heel  of  the  shoe  may  always  be'  made  level. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  that  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  feet  Avith  bulging  soles  no  horn  is  to  be  removed 
from  the  sole.  The  toe  is  to  be  shortened,  the  heels 
lowered  proportionately,  and  the  bearing-surface  of  the 
wall  made  level  with  a  rasp.  At  no  place  must  the  shoe 
rest  on  the  sole.  In  nearly  every  case,  the  toe  is  left  too 
long  and  the  bearing  taken  upon  it  by  the  shoe  only 
increases  the  deformity.  In  many  feet,  a  large  slice 
might  be  sawn  off  the  toe  with  advantage,  as  the  sensi- 
tive foot  is  separated  from  the  Avail  by  a  mass  of  diseased 
horn  which  presses  the  wall  at  the  toe  forward.  (Fig.  83.) 


Fig.  82. 
Dei'crniity  resulting 
from  laminitis. 


Fig  83.— Section  showing 

liow  front  of  wall  is  separated 

from  sensitive  laminae. 


Sandcracks. — This  is  the  name  given  to  cracks  in 
the  wall,  which  commence  at  the  coronet  and  extend 
downwards.  From  their  position  at  the  toe,  or  at  the 
side  of  the  hoof,  they  are  sometimes  called  respectively 
"  toe-cracks  "  and  "  quarter- cracks."  The  crack  may  be 
very  slight  and  may  exist  without  causing  lameness.  It 
may  appear  suddenly,  accompanied  by  great  lameness 
and  by  the  issue  of  blood  from  between  the  edges  of  the 
divided  Avail.  These  are  grave  cases  Avhich  require 
^surgical  attendance.     Sandcracks   are  most    commonly 


113 


THE   ART   OF   HORSE  SHOEING. 


seen  in  dry  brittle  feet,  and  the  horses  most  subject  to 
them  are  those  employed  in  heavy  draught  work.  Rail- 
■way  shunt-horses  and  omnibus  horses  are  very  liable  to 
be  troubled  with  sandcracks  in  the  toe  of  the  hind  feet. 
In  shoeing  for  this  defect,  there  are  two  things  to 
avoid:  (a)  not  to  place  any  direct  pressure  on  the  part; 
(&)  not  to  fit  a  shoe  which  will  tend  to  force  the  crack 
open.  Following  these  lines,  it  is  well  not  to  put  a  clip 
exactly  over  a  crack.  If  at  the  toe,  i^lace  a  clip  each  side 
of  the  crack,  and  never  use  calkins  or  high  heels,  which 
throw  the  weight  forward.  If  at  the  quarter,  avoid  a 
springdiceled  shoe  which  permits  the  downward  move- 
ment of  the  foot  behind  the  crack  and  so  forces  it  open. 
In  all  cases,  after  fitting  the  shoe  level  to  the  foot,  remove 
a  little  more  horn  just  below  the  crack,  so  as  to  relieve 
the  direct  bearing  on  the  part.     (Fig.  84.) 


Fig.  84.  —Horn  removed  to 
prevent  pressure. 


Fig.  85.— Bearincr  relieved  at  wronErplace- 

by  '  spriiigiug-"  the  heel. 


In  the  case  of  crack  extending  the  whole  space  of  the 
wall,  some  provision  should  always  be  made  to  keep  it- 


mimMmm. 

Fig.  86.— French  cHp  In  quarter. 


Fig.  87.— Clips  in  toe. 


from  opening,  because  every  step  of  the  horse,  especialljr 
when  drawing  a  load,  causes  an  outward  pressure  at  the 
coronet.     This  pressure  forces  the  hoof  apart,  and  the. 


SHOEING  BAD  FEET. 


113 


injury  caused  does  not  cease  witli  the  pain  and  lameness 
wliicli  follow,  and  wliicli  may  be  temporary.  Doubtless, 
the  original  cause  of  a  sandcrack  is  some  morbid  condi- 
tion of  the  coronary  band — the  band  from  which  the 
■wall  grows.    The  sensitive  lamina?  are  at  first  not  affected 

further  than  by  the  inflamma- 
tion consequent  upon  the  direct 
tearing  which  occurs  when  the 
crack  takes  place.  The  con- 
tinued irritation,  kept  up  by  a 
persistent  fissure  in  the  horn 
covering  the  laminae,  soon 
causes  other  serious  changes 
which  tend  to  make  the  sand- 
crack  a  permanent  disease. 
Thus,  even  the  smallest  crack 
should  be  attended  to  and 
measures  adopted  to  prevent  its 
enlargement,  or,  when  exten- 
sive, to  limit  all  opening  and 
shutting  movement  of  the  hoof. 
This  is  sometimes  attempted 
by  a  simple  leather  strap  tightly 
applied,  or  by  binding  the  foot 
with  string  or  tape.  Tape  is 
less  liable  to  slip  than  string. 
When  the  hoof  is  sufficiently 
thick,  two  )iails  may  be  driven 
in  opposite  directions  transver- 
sely through  the  crack  and 
clinched;  or  French  sandcrack- 
clii)s  (Figs.  8G  and  87)  may  be 
used,  which  are  easily  applied. 
The  instruments  necessary  are 
shown  in  Fig.  88.  The  iron  (b) 
is  made  red-hot  and  pressed  on 
the  hoof  across  the  crack,  so  as 
to  burn  a  groove  each  side  of  it.  Into  these  grooves  the 
clip  (a)  is  put,  and  the  pincers  {c)  are  then  used  to  com- 
press the  clip  firmly  into  its  place.     There  is  a  strain 


Fig.  88. 


114 


THE  ART  OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


upon  tlie  clips,  and  sometimes  one  breaks.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  always  to  use  two,  and  for  an  extensive 
crack  three  may  be  employed. 

All  these  appliances  tend  to  keep  the  lips  of  the  crack 
from  separating,  but  they  do  not  prevent  the  edges  of  a 
deep,  wide  crack  from  being  forced  together,  and  thus 
pinching  the  sensitive  parts.  To  provide  against  this 
injury,  a  slij)  of  hard  wood  may  be  fitted  into  the  crack, 
and  then  the  nails  or  clips  may  be  more  safely  drawn 
tight  without  fear  of  injury,  and  with  a  better  chance  of 
preventing  any  movement  in  the  edges  of  the  crack.  To 
insert  the  wood,  the  crack  is  converted  into  a  groove 
nearly  as  deep  as  the  wall,  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
wide,  with  straight  sides,  or,  better  still,  with  a  little 
greater  width  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  surface.  ■  Into 
such  a  groove,  a  piece  of  wood  formed  to  fit  it  is  gently 
driven  from  below  and  rasped  off  to  fit  exactly.  Or 
softened  gutta-percha  may  be  pressed  firmly  into  the 
space  and  levelled  off  when  cold.  . 

To  "cut  out  "  a  sandcrack,  except  for  the  purpose  of 
refilling  it,  is  bad  practice,  as  it  favors  movement  and 
helps  to  make  the  defect  permanent.  To  rasp  away  the 
horn  so  that  only  a  thin  layer  is  left  is  also  injurious. 


Fig.  89.— Shoe  with  heel  clips  for  sandcrack. 

No  horn  should  be  removed,  except  for  the  fitting  of  a 
plug,  as  above  described,  or,  under  veterinary  direction, 
for  the  x^urpose  of  giving  vent  to  matter  which  has 
formed  within  the  hoof. 


SHOEING  BAD  FEET.  115 

In  many  European  countries,  a  shoe  is  used  for  toe- 
cracks  whicli  lias  two  clips  drawn  on  the  inside  border  of 
the  shoe  at  the  heels.  These  clips  catch  the  bars  of  the 
hoof  and  prevent  the  heels  of  the  foot  closing  in.  The 
idea  is  that  when  the  wall  at  the  heels  contracts,  there  is 
a  tendency  for  the  wall  at  the  toe,  if  separated  by  a 
crack,  to  open.  Fig.  89  shows  the  position  of  the  clips, 
which  must  be  carefully  fitted,  so  as  to  rest  on  the  inside 
of  the  bars.  Mr.  Willis,  V.S.,  has  tried  these  shoes  and 
speaks  well  of  their  utility. 

When  the  crack  is  in  the  quarters  of  the  foot,  it  is 
not  the  tendency  to  expansion  of  the  hoof  that  has  to  be 
guarded  against.  It  is  the  downward  motion  of  the 
heels  that  forces  open  a  crack  in  this  position.  The 
farrier  provides  against  this  by  taking  care  to  have  a 
firm  bearing  of  the  shoe  on  the  hoof  behind  the  crack,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  84. 

Contracted  Feet. — Some  diseases  of  the  foot  lead 
to  contraction  of  the  hoof,  which  is  most  noticeable 
round  the  coronet  and  at  the  heels.  Any  long  continued 
lameness,  which  prevents  the  horse  placing  the  usual 
weight  on  the  foot,  may  be  accompanied  by  contraction. 
Constant  cutting  away  of  the  bars  and  paring  the  frog, 
so  that  it  takes  no  contact  with  the  ground,  also  leads  to 
shrinking  in  of  the  heels.  By  lowering  the  heels  and 
letting  the  frog  alone,  many  feet  will  in  time  widen  out 
to  their  proper  size,  but  no  system  of  shoeing  is  so  good 
for  contracted  feet  as  the  use  of  tips,  which  leave  the 
whole  back  part  of  the  hoof  to  take  direct  bearing  on  the 
ground. 

Many  shoes  have  been  invented  for  forcing  open  the 
heels  of  contracted  feet.  Some*  have  had  a  hinge  at  the 
toe  and  a  moveable  screw  at  the  heel.  Some  have  had 
the  bearing- surface  at  the  heels  made  with  a  slope  out- 
wards (see  Fig.  54,  page  80),  so  that  the  weight  of  the 
horse  should  constantly  tend  to  force  the  heels  apart. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  any  of  these  contrivances. 
A  properly  fitted  tip  (see  Fig.  GO,  page  84)  will  permit 
the  hoof  gradually  to  expand  to  its  healthy  size  and  form. 


116  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

Seedy-Toe. — This  is  a  condition  of  tlie  wall  usually 
found  at  the  toe,  hut  not  uncommon  at  the  quarters.  It 
is  not  common  in  hind-feet,  but  occurs  sometimes.  When 
the  shoe  is  removed,  a  separation  is  noticed  between  the 
sole  and  the  wall,  and  this  sej^aration  may  extend  up  the 
wall  nearly  to  the  coronet.  As  a  rule,  the  space  so 
formed  is  a  narrow  one,  but  it  may  be  wide  enough  to 
admit  three  fingers  of  a  man's  hand.  Probably  all  seedy 
toes  result  from  some  injury  or  disease  of  the  coronary 
band,  from  which  the  wall  grows,  and  the  first  appear- 
ance is  not  a  cavity,  but  a  changed  and  softened  horn, 
which  may  be  dry  and  crumbly,  or  moist  and  cheesy. 
The  diseased  horn  may  be  scraped  out  and  the  cavity 
filled  with  tar  and  tow.  The  wall  bounding  the  cavity 
should  be  relieved  of  all  pressure  on  the  shoe,  aiid  if  a 
radical  cure  be  desired,  all  the  unattached  wall  should  be 
cut  awa}^  This,  however,  should  be  done  under  veter- 
inary guidance. 

Turning  in  of  the  Wall. — By  this  expression,  I 
mean  those  cases  of  Aveak,  low  heels  in  which  the  border 
of  the  wall  turns  inward.  Such  a  form  of  horn  offers  no 
suitable  bearing  for  a  shoe,  and  if  submitted  to  pressure 
by  a  shoe,  gets  worse.  Too  often  this  condition  is  treated 
by  paring  away  the  sole  within,  which  increases  the 
deformity.  The  sole  should  not  be  cut,  but  be  left  as 
strong  as  possible.  The  curled-in  border  of  the  wall 
should  be  cut  down  and  all  bearing  taken  off  the  shoe. 
In  one  or  two  shoeings,  the  wall  Avill  resume  its  proper 
form.  When  both  heels  are  so  affected,  and  the  horse 
has  to  remain  at  work,  only  one  heel  must  be  treated  at  a 
time.  The  extreme  point  of  the  heel  is  never  affected 
and  affords  a  point  for  bearing  when  the  border  of  wall 
in  front  of  it  is  cut  away,  so  as  not  to  touch  the  shoe. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Leather  and  Rubber  Pads. 

In  the  days  when  farriers  were  driven  by  theoretical 
teacliers  to  pare  out  the  soles  and  otlierwise  rob  the 
foot  of  its  natural  covering  of  horn,  artificial  protection 
had  frequently  to  be  given  to  the  foot.  A  horse  with  a 
thin  sole  could  not  travel  over  rough  roads,  on  which 
sharp,  loose  stones  were  plentiful,  without  great  risk  of 
injury;  consequently,  in  those  times,  plates  of  leather 
were  often  used  to  protect  the  foot.  When  a  horse  went 
"a  little  sliort,"  his  owner  not  unnaturally  concluded 
that  he  had  bruised  his  foot  and  that  the  protection  of  a 
leather  sole  would  be  beneficial.  In  many  cases,  the 
defective  action  was  due  to  other  cause  than  bruising, 
but  still  the  leather  was  adopted,  and  it  soon  became  an 
accex^ted  theory  that  leather  soles  modified  concussion 
and  protected  the  foot  from  jar.  This  is  more  than 
doubtful,  and  I  hold  a  very  firm  opinion  that  a  plate  of 
leather  between  the  shoe  and  the  foot  has  no  such  effect, 
whilst  it  interferes  with  the  exactness  of  fit  of  the  shoe. 
"  Leathers"  are  useful  on  weak  feet  to  protect  a  thin  or 
defective  sole  from  injury.  When  the  under  surface  of 
a  foot  has  been  bruised,  cut  through,  or  when  it  is  dis- 
eased, leather  offers  a  useful  protection,  but  when  the 
sole  is  firm  and  sound,  it  is  quite  unnecessary. 

To  apply  leather  properly,  a  square  piece  fully  the 
size  of  the  shoe  is  taken.  A  portion  is  then  cut  out  where 
the  clip  has  to  fit  and  all  protruding  parts  cut  away  level 
with  the  border  of  the  shoe.  If  applied  without  more 
precautions,  an  open  space  would  be  left  between  leather 
and  sole,  into  which  mud  and  grit  would  find  their  way, 
and  the  leather  would  soon  be  cut  through  by  resting  on 
the  irregular  surface  of  the  frog.  To  prevent  this  mis- 
chief, the  under  surface  of  the  foot  is  made  level  before 
the  shoe  is  applied.  The  leveling  is  managed  by  spread- 
ing a  paste  of  tar  and  oatmeal  over  the  sole,  and  filling 

U7 


118  THE  ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

lip  the  space  at  the  sides  of  the  frog  with  tow.  Then  the 
shoe  with  the  leather  is  nailed  on  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  belief  in  leather  as  an  anti-concussive  appliance 
has  led  to  the  use  of  what  are  called  "ring-leathers." 
These  are  not  jilates  covering  the  whole  under  surface  of 
the  foot,  but  narrow  bands  fixed  between  shoe  and  hoof. 
They  are  absolutely  useless;  in  fact,  their  only  possible 
effect  is  to  spoil  the  fit  of  the  shoe.  Plates  of  india- 
rubber  have  been  tried  between  the  shoe  and  the  foot  as 
preventives  of  concussion.  They  invariably  fail  by 
reason  of  their  effect  upon  the  shoe.  At  each  step  when 
the  weight  of  the  horse  comes  on  the  foot,  the  elastic 
rubber  yields,  the  shoe  is  pressed  closer  to  the  foot,  the 
nails  are  loosened,  and  when  the  foot  is  raised  the 
rubber  rebounds.  The  shoe  soon  becomes  so  loose  that 
it  is  cast  or  torn  off.  Nothing  elastic  should  be  placed 
between  shoe  and  foot.  When  an  elastic  or  spring  is 
applied  it  must  be  between  the  shoe  and  the  ground. 

Various  arrangements  have  been  adopted  to  supply 
the  horse's  foot  with  some  provision  against  concussion. 
Injured  and  diseased  feet  may  no  doubt  be  benefited  by 
some  elastic  appliance,  which  secures  them  from  the  jar 
of  contact  on  a  hard  road.  They  may  be  protected 
against  direct  bruise.  The  healthy  foot  requires  no  such 
protection,  Nature  has  covered  it  with  a  thick  layer  of 
horn  and  has  provided  against  concussion  by  quite  other 
means — by  the  co-ordinate  action  of  muscles,  by  the 
oblique  position  of  the  pastern,  and  by  the  construction 
of  the  back  part  of  the  foot. 

Quite  apart  from  any  attempt  to  prevent  concussion, 
a  valuable  use  has  been  found  for  india-rubber  pads  in 
connection  with  horse-shoeing.  The  improvement  in 
modern  road-surfaces  has  been  accompanied  by  an 
increased  facility  for  slipping,  and  it  has  been  found 
that  no  material  gives  such  security  of  foot-hold  on. 
smooth  surfaces  as  india-rubber. 

The  earliest  of  these  contrivances  with  which  I  am 
acquainted  was  formed  so  as  to  leave  the  frog  uncovered 
whilst  a  bearing  of  rubber  was  given  all  round  the  inner 
circumference  of  the  shoe.     This  pad  had  a  wide,  flat 


LEATHER  AND  RUBBER  PADS. 


110 


border,  which  fitted  under  the  shoe,  with  which  it  was 
nailed  on  to  the  foot.  Its  great  objection  was  that  it 
could  not  be  nicely  fitted  on  many  feet  without  first 
cutting  away  the  bars. 

Then  we  had  rubber  pads  which  were  not  nailed  on 
with  the  shoe,  but  which  fitted  into  the  shoe  and  were 
removed  at  will.  The  objection  to  these  was  that  they 
could  only  be  used  with  a  seated  shoe  and  could  not  be 
applied  with  a  narrow  shoe  or  one  possessing  a  flat  foot- 
surface. 

The  next  form  to  appear  was  a  leather  sole  on  which 
an  artificial  frog  was  fixed.  Great  difficulty  was  at  first 
experienced  in  fixing  this  frog  so  that  it  remained  firm. 
The  difficulty  has  not  yet  been  surmounted  by  all  makers, 
but  Mr.  G.  Urquhart,  of  London,  makes  a  most  reliable 
article.  These  "frog-pads"  certainly  give  a  very  good 
foot-hold  on  all  kinds  of  paved  streets. 


Fig.  90— Frog-pad. 


A  pad  of  very  elegant  appearance  is  "  Sheather's 
Pneumatic."  It  is  not  solid  like  the  ordinary  frog-pad, 
but  hollow,  and  is  compressed  at  each  step,  but  imme- 
diately resumes  its  prominent  form  on  being  relieved  of 
pressure. 

One  of  the  simplest  anti-slipping  pads  is  "  Balls  and 
Keep's  wedge-x>ad."  It  possesses  one  advantage  in  not 
covering  up  the  whole  under-surface  of  the  foot.  When 
properly  fitted,  it  is  firmly  retained  and  does  its  work, 
but  a  careless  farrier  may  so  apply  it  that  it  shifts  on  the 
foot.     To  fit  it  exactly,  the  wall  of  the  back  part  of  the 


120 


THE   ART   OF  HORSE  SHOEING. 


foot  must  be  lowered  more  than  that  in  front,  so  that 
shoe,  foot  and  pad  may  ail  be  closely  adjusted. 


Fig.  91.— Sheather's  pad. 

What  is  called  the  "bar-pad  "  is  a  leather  plate  on 
which  an  india-rubber  pad  occupies  the  whole  of  the 
back  portion,  and  it  is  fixed  to  the  foot  with  a  short  shoe. 


Fig.  93.— Pad  with  shoe  attached. 

This  pad  is  not  only  an  anti-slipping  agent,  it  is  anti- 
concussive,  and  for  some  diseases  and  some  injuries  of 
the  heels  is  a  most  valuable  appliance.  For  long-stand- 
ing "corns,"  for  cases  of  chronic  laminitis,  and  for  horses 
that  markedly  "  go  on  their  heels  "  the  bar-pad  is  with- 
out doubt  the  most  efficient  arrangement  yet  invented. 
The  best  are  made  by  Mr.  Urquhart. 

All  these  i^ads  increase  the  cost  of  shoeing,  but  what 


LEATHER  AND  RUBBER  PADS. 


121 


tliey  save,  by  preventing  falls  and  injuries  to  the  horse 
and  fear  and  anxiety  to  the  driver,  far  more  than 
balances  the  account  in  their  favor.  The  cost,  however, 
is  an  item,  and  inventors  have  turned  their  attention  to 
the  production  of  some  other  methods  of  applying  rubber 
in  connection  with  the  shoe  for  the  prevention  of  slipping. 


Fig.  94.— Bar-pad  with  shoe. 


Fig.  95.— Without  shoe. 


Shoes  have  been  manufactured  into  which  cavities 
of  different  forms  and  sizes  have  been  made.  Tliese  are 
filled  by  correspondingly  shaped  pieces  of  rubber.  The 
cavity  must  be  so  formed  as  to  retain  the  rubber,  and 
this  renders  the  manufacture  very  difficult,  except  by  the 
employment  of  malleable  cast-iron  shoes.  This  is  a  great 
disadvantage. 

Another  plan  is  to  make  from  rolled  bar  iron  a 
hollow  shoe,  section  of  which  would  be  U-shaped,  but 
level  to  the  foot.  Into  the  groove  so  formed,  a  thick 
cord  of  rubber  is  placed  after  the  shoe  is  nailed  on  the 
foot.  This  wears  well  and  affords  good  foot-hold,  but  it 
entails  the  serious  objection  that  the  nails  are  difficult  to 
drive  and  far  from  being  so  safe  as  in  the  ordinary  shoe. 
If  rubber  is  ever  to  be  available  in  a  grooved  shoe,  it 
should  be  designed  so  that  the  nails  and  nail-holes  are 
not  interfered  with. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Shoeing  Competitions, 

The  Agricultural  Societies  that  have  made  horse- 
shoeing competitions  a  feature  of  their  annual  shows 
have  distinctly  done  good  to  the  art.  In  those  districts 
which  have  had  the  benefit  of  these  competitions  for 
many  years  past,  horse-shoeing  is  best  done.  In  those 
districts  where  no  competitions  have  been  held  shoeing  is 
generally  badly  done.  When  the  farrier  takes  a  pride 
in  his  work  he  is  more  careful  with  details.  Provided 
proper  princij^les  are  adopted,  no  calling  is  more  depend- 
ent upon  care  in  details  for  the  best  results  than  that  of  the 
farrier.  Competitions  stimulate  emulation  amongst  men. 
Public  appreciation,  as  displayed  by  the  prominence 
given  to  the  art  by  the  show  authorities  and  by  the 
admiring  crowd  that  generally  assembles  to  see  the  men 
at  work,  encourages  a  feeling  of  responsibility  and  grati- 
fies the  natural  and  honest  pride  of  the  workman.  Very 
few  trades  have  suffered  more  from  public  neglect  and 
indifference  than  that  of  the  farrier. 

The  success  of  a  shoeing  competition  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  secretary  of  a  show,  unless  that  officer 
has  amongst  his  stewards  an  energetic  horseman  who 
has  grasped  the  importance  of  good  shoeing  and  who 
possesses  some  organizing  powers.  In  this  connection, 
I  may  perhaps  offer  a  word  of  acknowledgment  for  the 
work  done  by  Mr.  Clay,  to  whose  energy  and  skill  the 
Hoyal  Agricultural  Society  has  for  many  years  been 
indebted  for  the  success  of  its  valuable  annual  shoeing 
competition. 

All  the  arrangements  for  the  competition  must  be 
completed  before  the  work  is  commenced,  and  upon  their 
perfection  depends  the  success  of  the  whole  thing.  There 
should,  if  possible,  be  two  classes — one  for  heavy  horses 
and  one  for  light  horses.  At  large  competitions,  there 
should  also  be  a  champion  class.     There  are  farriers  who- 

122 


SHOEING    COMPETITIONS.  123 

travel  from  show  to  show  and  generally  appear  in  the 
prize  list.  This  handicaps  the  local  men,  and  is  not 
encouraging  to  those  who  have  not  quite  risen  to  front 
rank.  The  object  of  the  competition  is  to  improve 
the  work  of  the  district,  and  it  is  quite  a  question 
whether  the"  rules  should  not  exclude  men  who  have 
taken,  say,  two  first  prizes  at  any  large  competition. 
The  only  argument  in  favor  of  letting  the  well  known 
smith  who  has  taken  many  prizes  enter  a  competition  is 
that  his  work  may  be  seen,  examined  and  imitated.  By 
confining  prize  winners  to  the  champion  class,  this  good 
would  be  attained;  at  the  same  time,  more  encourage- 
ment would  be  given  to  local  men. 

The  necessities  for  a  competition  include  anvils, 
fires,  tools,  iron  and  horses. 

For  every  five  men  there  should  be  one  anvil,  with  its 
accompanying  vice  and  forge.  The  anvil  should  be  so 
placed  that  the  sun  is  not  full  on  the  face  of  the  work- 
man. The  exact  relative  position  of  anvil,  vice  and  forge 
should  be  entrusted  to  a  practical  farrier,  and  the  whole 
placed  the  night  before  they  are  wanted.  Coal,  nails 
and  iron  should  also  be  provided.  If  competitors  are 
allowed  to  bring  their  own  iron  or  nails,  some  poor  men 
may  be  placed  at  a  disadvantage,  and  the  habitual  com- 
petitor, versed  in  every  detail,  is  given  an  advantage^ 
Each  man  should  bring  all  smaller  tools  he  may  want. 
In  broken  weather  a  canvas  roof  should  be  supplied  both- 
for, horses  and  workmen.  At  all  times,  a  temporary 
wooden  floor  should  be  put  down  for  the  horses  to  stand 
upon.  This  should  be  a  little  longer  than  the  line  of 
anvils,  so  that  each  man  has  his  horse  ojDposite  his  anvil. 
It  should  be  at  least  twelve  feet  deep,  so  that  there  is 
room  enough  behind  and  in  front  of  the  horses  for  men 
to  pass.  On  the  side  farthest  from  the  anvils  a  firm  rail 
must  be  fixed,  to  which  the  horses'  halters  may  be  tied,, 
and  outside  of  this — at  least  six  feet  distant— should  he 
another  line  of  post  and  rails  to  keep  back  spectators. 

Horses  have  to  be  borrowed  or  hired,  and  one  horse 
is  sufficient  for  two  competitors.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  have  any  horse  with  unusually  bad  feet.     The 


124  THE   ART   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

most  suitable  horses  are  those  with  over-grown  hoofs. 
"Under  no  circumstances  should  a  vicious  or  very  fidgety 
horse  be  selected. 

'  When  time  is  not  an  object,  the  best  test  of  a  work- 
man is  to  require  him  to  make  a  fore  and  hind  shoe  and 
put  them  on  the  horse.  At  a  one-day  show,  or  at  a  com- 
petition when  the  entries  are  large,  it  is  sufficient  to- 
require  the  making  of  a  fore  and  hind  shoe  and  the- 
fitting  and  nailing  on  of  the  front  one.  A  reasonable 
time  should  be  fixed,  and  undue  haste  shoidd  be  depre- 
cated. 

There  should  always  be  two  judges,  who  should  be 
supplied  with  books  in  which  each  division  of  the  opera- 
tion of  shoeing  should  be  separately  marked.  There  are 
only  three  important  divisions  of  the  subject  :  (1)  Pre- 
paration of  the  foot;  (2)  making  the  shoes;  and  (3)  fitting 
and  nailing  on. 

Sometimes  these  operations  are  marked  separately 
for  fore  and  hind  feet.  I  consider  this  quite  unnecssary. 
There  is  not  sufficient  difference  either  in  principle  or 
detail  to  require  each  foot  to  be  specially  marked.  The 
judge,  of  course,  notes  everything  in  his  mind,  and  it  is 
sufficient  for  him  to  estimate  and  mark  the  value  of  the 
work  under  the  three  different  operations.  The  great 
fault  I  find  with  most  competitions  is  that  ' '  the  prepara- 
tion "  of  the  foot  for  the  shoe  is  not  more  strictly  defined. 
The  competitors  are  permitted  to  mix  up  the  ' '  prepara- 
tions "  and  the  "fitting."  Some  of  them  do  nothing  ta 
the  foot  until  they  commence  to  fit  the  shoe.  This  is 
wrong,  and  every  foot  should  be  properly  prepared — the 
Itearing-surface  formed  and  the  proportions  of  the  hoof 
attended  to — before  the  fitting  is  attempted.  A  rule  to 
this  effect  should  be  added  to  the  conditions  in  the  sche- 
dule of  the  competition.  Each  judge  may  perhaps  be 
permitted  to  fix  his  own  standard  of  marking,  but  a  uni- 
form system  would  be  useful  for  comparison.  If  the 
maximum  be  indicated  by  too  small  a  figure,  difficulty 
often  arises  in  exactly  determining  the  merits  of  men 
who  have  come  out  equal  in  the  totals,  and  there  is  too 
often,  in  a  large  class,  a  number  whose  marks  are  about 


SHOEING    COMPETITIONS. 


125 


equal.  The  three  operations— preparing  the  foot,  making 
■the  shoe,  fitting  and  nailing  on — are  about  equal  ia 
value.  A  maximum  of  five  points  in  each  is  too  small  a 
number  to  make  distinctive  marking  easy,  but  there  is 
.nothing  gained  by  adopting  a  higher  maximum  than  ten. 
A  marking  sheet  for  the  judges  of  a  shoeing  competition, 
may  be  something  in  this  form : 


CLASS 


No.  of 
Competitor. 


Preparation 
of  loot. 


Making 
shoe. 


Fitting  and 
nailing  on. 


Total. 


Remarks. 


The  stewards  should  see  that  each  competitor  has  a 
number,  and  that  the  same  number  is  attached  to  the" 
side  of  the  horse  on  which  he  works.  The  steward  also 
should  take  the  time  at  which  each  batch  of  competitors 
commences  work  and  see  that  none  exceed  it. 

Excessive  rasping  of  shoes  should  be  prohibited,  and 
the  men  should  see  the  sizes  and  kinds  of  nails  provided, 
so  that  they  may  make  their  "fuller"  and  nail-holes 
accordingly. 

Shoeing  competitions  are  almost  entirely  confined  to 
country  districts.  It  is  a  great  pity  that  they  are  not 
attempted  in  large  towns.  The  only  difficulty  is  th© 
expense.  It  would  well  repay  large  horse-owners  to 
subscribe  and  support  this  method  of  improving  the  art. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  say  that  the  best  of  all  ways  to 
improve  the  art  is  by  giving  practical  instruction  at  th© 
anvil.  A  few  lessons  from  a  competent,  practical  teacher- 
are  worth  more  than  all  books  or  lectures,  as  the  work", 
has  then  to  be  done,  errors  are  j)ointed  out  and  corrected, 
,and  reasons  given  for  each  step  as  it  is  attempted. 

The  Berkshire  County  Council  has  adopted  a  travel- 


126                         THE  ART   OF  HORSE-SHOEING.  A 

s 

ling  forge — tlie  suggestion  of  Mr.  Albert  Wlieatley,  V.S.,  .j 

of  Reading — which  is  accompanied  by  an  instructor  and  i 

passes  from  town  to  town  and  village  to  village.     In  this  < 
way  is  supplied  the  tuition  which  used  to  be  obtained  by 

apprenticeship  to  a  good  workman.   Other  County  Couu-  • 
cils  should  adopt  this  method. 


i 


THE    END. 


INDEX. 


Action  of  the  foot,  26. 

Agricultural  societies  and  shoeing, 
132. 

Arrangements  of  shoeing  compe- 
titions, 123. 

Balls  &  Keep's  "  wedge-pad,"  120. 

Bar  iron,  68. 

Bar-pad,  120. 

Bars  of  the  foot,  7. 

Bearing  surface  of  hoof,  29,  41. 

Bearing  surface  at  heels,  57. 

Bearing  surface  of  shoe,  54,  56, 

Berkshire  shoeing- van,  135. 

Bevelled  iron  bars,  68. 

"Binds,"  98. 

Blood-vessels,  24. 

Bones  of  foot,  21. 

Bruises  by  shoe,  100. 

"Brushing,"  103. 

"Burnt-sole,"  102. 

Calkins,  59. 

Calkins,  effect  of,  60. 

Calkins,  position  of,  61, 

Cartilages  of  foot,  23. 

Charlier  shoe,  85. 

•Charlier  theory,  86. 

"  Clacking,"  106. 

Clips,  81. 

"  Close  "  fitting,  74. 

Coarse  nail-holes,  64. 

Cold  fitting,  82. 

Concave  shoe,  the,  58. 

Continental     sandcrack-shoe,    A, 

115. 
Contracted  feet,  115. 
Coronary  band,  15. 
-Coronary  cushion,  24, 


Corns,  100. 
"Cover,"  53. 
"  Cutting,"  108. 

Defective  bearing-surface,  45, 
Disproportionate  hoof,  34. 
Distance  between  nails,  64. 
Double-grooved  shoe,  58. 
Drawing  knife,  32. 
"  Dropped"  sole,  110. 
"  Easing"  the  heels,  77. 
Effect  of  Charlier  shoeing,  8&. 
Effect  of  calkins,  61. 
Effect  of  frog  pressure,  28. 
Evils  of  roughing,  93. 
Excessive  rasping,  45. 
Expansion  of  foot,  27. 

"  Fine  "  nail-holes,  65. 

Fitting  of  shoes,  72. 

Fitting  of  tips,  84. 

Fitting  the  foot  to  the  shoe,  30. 

Flat  bearing-surface  of  shoe,  53. 

Foals  and  unshod  feet,  48. 

Foot-surface  of  shoes,  53. 

"Forging,"  106. 

French     sandcrack    instrumentsii 

113. 
Frog,  the,  10. 
Frog-pads,  120. 
Frog-pad,  the,  23. 
Frog-band,  the,  11. 
Frost-nails,  92. 
Fullering,  57. 
Functions  of  foot,  25. 

Good  bearing-surface,  A,  33. 
Grooved  bars,  68. 
Ground-surface  of  shoes,  57. 


128 


INDEX. 


Growth  of  hoof,  17. 

Height  of  calkins,  61. 
Height  of  foot  at  heels,  34, 
Hoof,  the,  5. 
Hoof,  growth  of,  17. 
Hoof,  wear  of,  18. 
Horny  laminae,  7. 
Horse-shoeing  competitions,  133. 
Hot  fitting,  82. 
Hunting  shoe,  58. 

Importance  of  horse-shoeing,  2. 

Importance  of  roughing,  88. 

Injury  by  clips,  99. 

Injury  by  nails,  98'. 

Injury  by  shoe,  100. 

"Interfering,"  105. 

Iron  and  rubber  combinations,  121. 

Judging  horse-shoeing,  125. 

"  Knocked-up  "  shoes,  104. 

Laminae,  the  horny,  7. 
Laminse,  the  sensitive,  14. 
Lateral  cartilages,  the,  22. 
Lateral  proportions  of  foot,  89. 
Leather  soles,  use  of,  117. 
Length  of  toe,  35. 
Level  bearing-surface,  43. 
Long  and  short  heels  of  shoe,  H. 

Machine-made  shoes,  67. 
Material  for  horse-shoes,  50 
Modified  Charlier  shoe,  87. 

Nails,  63. 
Nail-holes,  63. 
Nail-holes,  portions  of,  65 
Nail-holes,  pitch  of,  66. 
Nail-holes,  number  an(J  position, 

66. 
Natural  bearing-surface  Of  foot,  29. 
Notches  on  shoes,  59. 

Omnibus-horse  shoes,  70. 


One-sided  hoof,  39. 
Opening  the  heels,  46. 
Outline  fitting,  73, 
Overgrown  foot,  34. 
Over-lowered  heels,  38. 
"  Over-reaching,"  105. 
Over-reduction  of  hoof,  47. 

Paring  the  sole,  42,  45. 

Paring  the  frog,  42. 

Pitch  of  nail-holes,  66. 

Plantar  cushion,  23. 

Pneumatic  pad,  the,  119. 

Position  of  calkins,  61. 

Position  of  nails,  64. 

Preparation  of  foot  for  shoeing,  30. 

"Pricks,"  99. 

Properly  prepared  foot,  31. 

Properties  of  hoof,  19. 

Proportions  of  heel  and  toe,  35, 

Rasps,  32. 

Rasping  the  -wall,  45. 

Relation  of  foot  to  leg,  35. 

Removable  "sharps,"  95. 

Results  of  neglect,  3. 

Ridged  shoes,  59. 

"Ring-leathers,"  118. 

Rodway's  shoe,  58. 

Roughing,  90. 

"  Rough  "  nails,  91. 

Rubber  pads,  118. 

Sandcrack,  111. 
"  Saucer"  shoe,  the,  79. 
Screw  frost  sharps,  95. 
Screwing  taps,  96. 
Seated  shoes,  55,  78. 
Section  of  foot,  20. 
"  Seedy -toe,"  116. 
Selection  of  shoes,  70. 
Sensitive  frog,  16. 
Sensitive  laminae,  14. 
Sensitive  sole,  15. 
Sharping,  90. 
Sharps  without  screw,  96. 
Sheather's  pad,  120. 


INDEX. 


13S 


Shoe  for  sandcrack,  113. 
Shoe  for  forging,  107. 
Shoe  for  cutting,  104. 
Shoeless  horses,  2. 
Shoeing  flat  feet,  109. 
Shoeing  convex  soles,  110. 
Sole,  the,  9. 
"Speedy  cut,"  106. 
Steel  sharps,  94. 
"  Stumped-up  "  toe,  44, 
Surface  fitting,  75. 

The  hoof,  5. 
The  "  quick,"  13. 
Thickness  of  shoes,  53. 
'I'hree-quarter  shoe,  101, 
lips,  83. 
Toeing  knife,  33. 


Toe-pieceg,  63. 
Toe  sharps,  94. 
Treads,  103. 
Turned-in  wall,  116. 
Twisted  feet,  39. 

Uneven  bearing-surface,  44. 
Uneven  ground-surface,  40. 
Urquhart's  bar-pad,  131. 

Various  bearings  of  shoes,  SO^ 

Wall,  the,  6. 
Wear  of  hoof,  18. 
Wedge-pad,  the,  120. 
Weight  of  shoes,  51. 
Width  of  slices,  53. 


i  1 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  Sciiooi  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  V\/8SLboro  Road 
Nortli  Grafton,  MA  01536 


